US, 1800, 19th Century Folder, War of 1812, Civil War, Spanish American War.kmz

US, 1800, 19th Century Folder, War of 1812, Civil War, Spanish American War

US, 1801-1809, President, Thomas Jefferson, diplomat, architect, musician, founding father, Aliens&S, B pirates, L Pur
US President, 1801-1809, Thomas Jefferson; Jefferson (April 13, 1743[a] - July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, musician,[1] philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. had previously served as the second vice president of the United States under John Adams between 1797 and 1801, and as the first United States secretary of state under George Washington between 1790 to 1793. principal author of the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson was a proponent of democracy, republicanism, and individual rights for certain categories of people, motivating American colonists to break from the Kingdom of Great Britain and form a new nation; he produced formative documents and decisions at both the state and national levels. the American Revolution, Jefferson represented Virginia in the Continental Congress that adopted the Declaration of Independence. a Virginia legislator, he drafted a state law for religious freedom. served as the second Governor of Virginia from 1779 to 1781, during the American Revolutionary War. 1785, Jefferson was appointed the United States Minister to France, and subsequently, the nation's first Secretary of State under President George Washington from 1790 to 1793. and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System. Madison, he anonymously wrote the provocative Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798 and 1799, which sought to strengthen states' rights by nullifying the federal Alien and Sedition Acts. president, Jefferson pursued the nation's shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. in 1803, Jefferson promoted a western expansionist policy, organizing the Louisiana Purchase which doubled the nation's land area. make room for settlement, Jefferson began a controversial process of Indian tribal removal from the newly acquired territory. a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. was reelected in 1804. His second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former vice president Aaron Burr. 1807, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act in response to British threats to U.S. shipping. The same year, Jefferson signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves. while primarily a planter, lawyer and politician, mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and mechanics. He was an architect in the classical tradition. Jefferson's keen interest in religion and philosophy led to his presidency of the American Philosophical Society; he shunned organized religion but was influenced by Christianity, Epicureanism,[2] and deism. A philologist, Jefferson knew several languages. He was a prolific letter writer and corresponded with many prominent people, including Edward Carrington, John Taylor of Caroline and James Madison. Among his books is Notes on the State of Virginia (1785), considered perhaps the most important American book published before 1800.[3] Jefferson championed the ideals, values, and teachings of the Enlightenment. his lifetime, Jefferson owned over 600 slaves, who were kept in his household and on his plantations. Since Jefferson's time, controversy has revolved around his relationship with Sally Hemings, a mixed-race enslaved woman, and his late wife's half-sister.[4] According to DNA evidence from surviving descendants and oral history, Jefferson fathered at least six children with Hemings, including four that survived to adulthood.[5] Evidence suggests that Jefferson started the relationship with Hemings when they were in Paris, where she arrived at the age of 14 when Jefferson was 44. By the time she returned to the United States at 16, she was pregnant.[6] retiring from public office, Jefferson founded the University of Virginia. Jefferson and his colleague John Adams both died on Independence Day, July 4, 1826, the 50th anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Presidential scholars and historians generally praise Jefferson's public achievements, including his advocacy of religious freedom and tolerance in Virginia. Although some modern scholars have been critical of his stance on slavery, Jefferson continues to rank highly among the U.S. presidents, often in the top ten. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; ELIZABETH SETON, FOUNDER OF THE AMERICAN SISTERS OF CHARITY, 1821, Commemorated December 4; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26;

US, 1803, Louisiana Purchase, From France, $15 Million, for European rights to the area
1803, Louisiana Purchase; Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane, lit. 'Sale of Louisiana') was the acquisition of the territory of Louisiana by the United States from Napoleonic France in 1803. return for fifteen million dollars, or approximately eighteen dollars per square mile, the United States nominally acquired a total of 828,000 sq mi (2,140,000 km2; 530,000,000 acres). However, France only controlled a small fraction of this area, most of it inhabited by Native Americans; for the majority of the area, what the United States bought was the "preemptive" right to obtain "Indian" lands by treaty or by conquest, to the exclusion of other colonial powers.[1][2] The total cost of all subsequent treaties and financial settlements over the land has been estimated to be around 2.6 billion dollars.[1][2] Kingdom of France had controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. In 1800, Napoleon, the First Consul of the French Republic, regained ownership of Louisiana as part of a broader project to re-establish a French colonial empire in North America. However, France's failure to put down a revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to consider selling Louisiana to the United States. Acquisition of Louisiana was a long-term goal of President Thomas Jefferson, who was especially eager to gain control of the crucial Mississippi River port of New Orleans. Jefferson tasked James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston with purchasing New Orleans. Negotiating with French Treasury Minister François Barbé-Marbois (who was acting on behalf of Napoleon), the American representatives quickly agreed to purchase the entire territory of Louisiana after it was offered. Overcoming the opposition of the Federalist Party, Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison persuaded Congress to ratify and fund the Louisiana Purchase. Louisiana Purchase extended United States sovereignty across the Mississippi River, nearly doubling the nominal size of the country. The purchase included land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces, including the entirety of Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; large portions of North Dakota and South Dakota; the area of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado east of the Continental Divide; the portion of Minnesota west of the Mississippi River; the northeastern section of New Mexico; northern portions of Texas; New Orleans and the portions of the present state of Louisiana west of the Mississippi River; and small portions of land within Alberta and Saskatchewan. At the time of the purchase, the territory of Louisiana's non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were enslaved Africans.[3] The western borders of the purchase were later settled by the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain, while the northern borders of the purchase were adjusted by the Treaty of 1818 with Britain.

US, 1804-1806, Lewis and Clark Expedition Folder
Lewis and Clark Expedition;

Lewis and Clark Expedition 1 (St Charles, Mo)
Lewis and Clark Expedition;

Lewis and Clark 2 (La Charrette, MO (near Marthasville))

Lewis and Clark 3 (Kansas City, MO)

Lewis and Clark 4 (Omaha, NB)

Lewis and Clark 5 (Sioux City, IA, Floyds Bluff)

Lewis and Clark 6 (Fort Mandan, ND)

Lewis and Clark Expedition (Yellowstone River Mouth)

Marias River

Lewis and Clark Expedition (Marias River Source)

Lewis and Clark Expedition (Marias River Mouth)

Missouri River Source (Brower's Spring)

Missouri River 1

Lewis and Clark 7 (Lemhi Pass, Continental Divide)

Selway River Source (southeast of Stripe Mountain)

Clearwater River Middle Fork (Selway and Lochsa Rivers)

Lewis and Clark Return Trip Camp Chopunnish (Kamiah, ID)
Camp Chopunnish;

Lewis and Clark 8 (Canoe Camp)
In October 1805, the Lewis and Clark Expedition descended the Clearwater River in dugout canoes, putting in at "Canoe Camp," five miles (8 km) downstream from Orofino.

Lewis and Clark 9 (Clearwater River Mouth, Snake River, Lewiston, ID)

Lewis and Clark 10 (Snake River Mouth, Columbia River, Pasco, WA)

Lewis and Clark 11 (Celilo Falls, The Dalles)

Lewis and Clark 12 (Portland, Willamett River Mouth)

Lewis and Clark 13 (Fort Clatsop, Astoria, OR)

Lewis and Clark Expedition

US, 1808-1850, ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, from Malden, MA, non-Buddhist Swaleen people received
Burma, 1808-1850, ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, from Malden, MA, non-Buddhist Swaleen people received Gospel easily, then converted Buddhists; Burma; ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; Judson, Jr. (9 August 1788 – 12 April 1850) was a Baptist missionary from the United States who labored for almost forty years in Burma. the age of 25, Adoniram Judson was the first Protestant missionary sent from North America to preach in Burma. His mission and work led to the formation of the first Baptist association in America, inspired many Americans to become or support missionaries, translated the Bible into Burmese, and established a number of Baptist churches in Burma. Judson is remembered as the first significant missionary there, as well as one of the group of the very first missionaries from America to travel overseas. was born on 9 August 1788 in Malden, Massachusetts, son of a Congregational minister of the same name. graduated as valedictorian of his class at Brown Univ. at the age of nineteen. He then attended The Andover Theological Seminary, and graduated in 1810. had joined an earnest group of mission-minded students at Andover who called themselves "the Brethren." Passionately eager to serve abroad, and convinced that "Asia with its idolatrous myriads, was the most important field in the world for missionary effort", they appeared before the Congregational Church's General Association to appeal for support to their missionary intentions. by the polite behavior of the four men and their sincerity, the elders in 1810 voted to form an "American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions." some mishaps and delays, Judson arrived in Calcutta on June 17, 1812. While aboard ship on route to India, he did a focused study on the theology of baptism. He came to the position that believer's baptism was theologically valid. September 6, 1812, he switched to the Baptist denomination along with his wife and they were baptized by immersion in Calcutta by an English missionary associate of William Carey. They were ordered out of India by the British East India Company, to whom American missionaries were even less welcome than British. The following year, on July 13, 1813, he moved to Burma. Burma, Judson was told by the Baptists, was impermeable to Christian evangelism. Judson, who already knew Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, immediately began studying the Burmese grammar but took over three years learning to speak it. This was due, in part, to the radical difference in structure between Burmese and that of "Western" languages. Four years passed before Judson dared even to hold a semi-public service. It wasn't until June, 1819, that he baptized his first Burmese convert. attempts by the Judsons to interest the natives of Rangoon with the Gospel of Jesus met with almost total indifference. By 1823, ten years after his arrival, membership of the little church had grown to eighteen, and Judson had finally finished the first draft of his translation of the entire text of the New Testament in Burmese. Karen people were a primitive, hunted minority group of ancient Tibeto-Burman ancestry scattered in the forests and jungles of the Salween River and in the hills along the southeast coast. was the first missionary to make contact with them about 1827 when he ransomed and freed a debt-slave from one of his early converts. The freed slave, Ko Tha Byu, was an illiterate, surly man who spoke almost no Burmese and was reputed to be not only a thief but also a murderer. In 1828 the former Karen bandit, "whose rough, undisciplined genius, energy and zeal for Christ" had caught the notice of the missionaries, was sent south with a new missionary couple, the Boardmans, into the territory of the strongly animistic, non-Buddhist Karen. There, he was no sooner baptized then he set off into the jungle alone to preach to his fellow tribespeople. Astonishingly, he found them strangely prepared for his preaching. the Boardmans and Ko Tha Byu were penetrating the jungles to the south, Adoniram Judson shook off a paralyzing year-long siege of depression that overcame him after the death of his wife, Ann, and set out alone on long canoe trips up the Salween River into the tiger-infested jungles to evangelize the northern Karen. trips he worked untiringly at his lifelong goal of translating the whole Bible into Burmese. When he finished it at last in 1834, he had been labouring on it for twenty-four years. It was printed and published in 1835. developed a serious lung disease and doctors prescribed a sea voyage as a cure. On 12 April 1850, Adoniram Judson died at age 61 on board ship in the Bay of Bengal and was buried at sea, having spent 37 years in missionary service abroad with only one home leave. — more at Wikipedia

US, 1809-1817, President, James Madison, statesman, diplomat, expansionist, founding father, father of the constitution, federalist papers, L Purchase
US President, 1809-1817, James Madison ; Madison Jr. (March 16, 1751[b] - June 28, 1836) was an American statesman, diplomat, expansionist, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the fourth president of the United States from 1809 to 1817. is hailed as the "Father of the Constitution" for his pivotal role in drafting and promoting the Constitution of the United States and the United States Bill of Rights. He co-wrote The Federalist Papers, co-founded the Democratic-Republican Party, and served as the fifth United States Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. into a prominent Virginia planter family, Madison served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates and the Continental Congress during and after the American Revolutionary War. became dissatisfied with the weak national government established by the Articles of Confederation and helped organize the Constitutional Convention, which produced a new constitution to supplant the Articles of Confederation. Virginia Plan served as the basis for the Constitutional Convention's deliberations, and he was one of the most influential individuals at the convention. Madison became one of the leaders in the movement to ratify the Constitution, and he joined with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in writing The Federalist Papers, a series of pro-ratification essays that was one of the most influential works of political science in American history. the ratification of the Constitution, Madison emerged as an important leader in the United States House of Representatives and served as a close adviser to President George Washington. was the main force behind the ratification of the United States Bill of Rights, which enshrines guarantees of personal freedoms and rights within the Constitution.[1] the early 1790s, Madison opposed the economic program and the accompanying centralization of power favored by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. with Thomas Jefferson, Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party, which was, alongside Hamilton's Federalist Party, one of the nation's first major political parties. Jefferson won the 1800 presidential election, Madison served as Secretary of State from 1801 to 1809. In that position, he supervised the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the United States. succeeded Jefferson with a victory in the 1808 presidential election. diplomatic protests and a trade embargo failed to end British seizures of American shipping, he led the United States into the War of 1812. The war was an administrative morass and ended inconclusively, but many Americans saw it as a successful "second war of independence" against Britain. The war convinced Madison of the necessity of a stronger federal government. presided over the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and the enactment of the protective Tariff of 1816. By treaty or war, Madison's presidency added 23 million acres of American Indian land to the United States. retired from public office in 1817 and died in 1836. Madison never privately reconciled his Republican beliefs with his slave ownership. Madison is considered one of the most important Founding Fathers of the United States, and historians have generally ranked him as an above-average president. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; ELIZABETH SETON, FOUNDER OF THE AMERICAN SISTERS OF CHARITY, 1821, Commemorated December 4; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; PAUL CUFFEE, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE SHINNECOCK, 1812, Commemorated March 4; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26; ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30;

US, 1809-1870, JACKSON KEMPER, started western college in St Louis, Nashota House and Racine College, urged Indian outreach
US, 1809-1870, JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY, Pleasant Valley (town, near Poughkeepsie, NY, Hudson River 14), started western college in St Louis, and Nashota House and Racine College, urged Indian outreach, and translation to their languages; Pleasant Valley (town), New York; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870); Kemper was born 24 December 1789 in Pleasant Valley, New York, Columbia College, and was ordained a priest in 1814. 1835, the Episcopal Church undertook to consecrate missionary bishops to preach the Gospel west of the settled areas, and Kemper was the first to be chosen. promptly headed west. Having found that clergy who had lived all their lives in the settled East were slow to respond to his call to join him on the frontier, he determined to recruit priests from among men who were already in the West, and established a college in St. Louis, Missouri, for that purpose. went on to found Nashotah House and Racine College in Wisconsin. He constantly urged a more extensive outreach to the Indian peoples, and translations of the Scriptures and the services of the Church into Indian languages. From 1859 till his death in 1870, he was bishop of Wisconsin, but the effect of his labors covered a far wider area. House Seminary From a sermon preached before the Board of Missions in 1841 remarkably peculiar, how vastly important is the position of our Church! Possessing as we fully believe all those characteristics which distinguished the primitive fold:--A scriptural Liturgy--evangelical doctrines--and the apostolic succession--having the form of godliness and the power thereof--free from the false and worldly scruples and the time-serving policy of civil governments--independent-- respected and influential--in the midst of an intelligent, enterprising and commercial people--Brethren! may it not be OUR duty to convert the world--may not this high, this inestimable privilege be offered to US! And are we prepared--are we doing at the present moment EVEN ONE TENTH part of what we are capable? Our means and our power are extensive--and under the blessing of Him, without whom nothing is strong, nothing is holy, our aim--our constant, undeviating, untiring aim should be great and lofty. "Glorious things are spoken of thee, O city of God." the talents we possess, (and for which, as good stewards, we must finally account, at that hour when no secrets can be hid), with the talents committed to our trust and the privileges we enjoy, cannot our faith, our liberality and our self-denial, GREATLY increase? Cannot our supplications be more fervent, our economy more strict, our love of souls more ardent? Have we, as individuals, or a Church, a deep and abiding interest in the success of missions? a brother here would I accuse of indifference or cowardice. But I would stir up, with God's permission, the pure mind of each one, by way of remembrance. It is the spirit of missions I earnestly and most affectionately advocate. division into Foreign and Domestic is often arbitrary, and might, without detriment, be abolished; for no one, I presume, would wish to withdraw our heralds of the cross from Africa, suspend our incipient efforts for Texas, or abandon the much injured aborigines to all the degrading vices they have learned from unprincipled men who claim to be civilized. Let us go where duty calls--where Providence points the way--and let us rejoice in the privilege, for we assuredly ought--Oh, let us rejoice in the privilege of sending forth in the name of the Lord and under the guidance of His Spirit all those who, thoroughly instructed in sacred truths, hear the cry, "Come over and help us"--and cannot resist the deep, the abiding conviction concerning their sphere of duty--whose hearts burn within them when they hear of people or nations wholly given to idolatry, or licentiousness, or worldly-mindedness. Cultivate, dear brethren of the clergy, cultivate with the utmost assiduity your own vineyard--love with the strongest affections your own spiritual children,--but close not your hearts to the sufferings and wants of your neighbors. collect refers to him as the first missionary bishop in the United States. Whether this is literally true, or means only first Anglican missionary bishop, I do not know.)

US, 1811, National Road Folder (Cumberland Road, National Pike)
National Road 1811-37;

National Road (Western Maryland to Central Illinois)
National Road 1811-37;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 1 (Cumberland, MD)
National Road (Cumberland Road); (Cumberland, MD);

National Road (Cumberland Road) 2 (Frostburg, MD)
National Road (Cumberland Road); Frostburg, MD;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 3 (Uniontown, PA)
National Road (Cumberland Road); Uniontown, Pennsylvania;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 4 (Washington, PA)
National Road (Cumberland Road); Washington, Pennsylvania;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 5 (Wheeling, WV)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; 2 (Wheeling, WV);

National Road (Cumberland Road) 6 (St. Clairsville, OH)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; St. Clairsville, Ohio;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 7 (Zanesville, OH)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Zanesville, Ohio;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 8 (Columbus, OH)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Columbus, Ohio;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 9 (Springfield, OH)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Springfield, Ohio;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 10 (Richmond, IN)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Richmond, Indiana;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 11 (Indianapolis, IN)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Indianapolis, Indiana;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 12 (Terre Haute, IN)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Terre Haute, Indiana;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 13 (Effingham, IL)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Effingham, Illinois;

National Road (Cumberland Road) 14 (Vandalia, IL)
National Road (Cumberland Road) ; Vandalia, Illinois;

US, 1818-1825, President, James Monroe, statesman, diplomat, founding father, Monroe doctrine opposing E in Americas
US President, 1818-1825, James Monroe; Monroe (April 28, 1758 - July 4, 1831) was an American statesman, lawyer, diplomat and Founding Father who served as the fifth president of the United States from 1817 to 1825. member of the Democratic-Republican Party, Monroe was the last president of the Virginia dynasty; his presidency coincided with the Era of Good Feelings. He is perhaps best known for issuing the Monroe Doctrine, a policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas. also served as the governor of Virginia, a member of the United States Senate, the U.S. ambassador to France and Britain, the seventh Secretary of State, and the eighth Secretary of War. into a planter family in Westmoreland County, Virginia, Monroe served in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. studying law under Thomas Jefferson from 1780 to 1783, he served as a delegate in the Continental Congress. a delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention, Monroe opposed the ratification of the United States Constitution. In 1790, he won election to the Senate, where he became a leader of the Democratic-Republican Party. left the Senate in 1794 to serve as President George Washington's ambassador to France but was recalled by Washington in 1796. won the election as Governor of Virginia in 1799 and strongly supported Jefferson's candidacy in the 1800 presidential election. President Jefferson's special envoy, Monroe helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase, through which the United States nearly doubled in size. fell out with his longtime friend James Madison after Madison rejected the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty that Monroe negotiated with Britain. unsuccessfully challenged Madison in the 1808 presidential election, but in April 1811 he joined Madison's administration as Secretary of State. the later stages of the War of 1812, Monroe simultaneously served as Madison's Secretary of State and Secretary of War. His wartime leadership established him as Madison's heir apparent, and he easily defeated Federalist Party candidate Rufus King in the 1816 presidential election. presidency was coterminous with the Era of Good Feelings, as the Federalist Party collapsed as a national political force. president, Monroe signed the Missouri Compromise, which admitted Missouri as a slave state and banned slavery from territories north of the parallel 36°30′ north. foreign affairs, Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams favored a policy of conciliation with Britain and a policy of expansionism against the Spanish Empire. the 1819 Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain, the United States secured Florida and established its western border with New Spain. In 1823, Monroe announced the United States' opposition to any European intervention in the recently independent countries of the Americas with the Monroe Doctrine, which became a landmark in American foreign policy. was a member of the American Colonization Society, which supported the colonization of Africa by freed slaves, and Liberia's capital of Monrovia is named in his honor. his retirement in 1825, Monroe was plagued by financial difficulties, and died on July 4, 1831 in New York City. He has been generally ranked as an above-average president by historians. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; ELIZABETH SETON, FOUNDER OF THE AMERICAN SISTERS OF CHARITY, 1821, Commemorated December 4; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26; ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30;

US, 1821-1825, Erie Canal Folder
Erie Canal; Onondaga Formation (Escarpment);

Erie Canal

Erie Canal (Onondaga Formation (Escarpment))
Erie Canal; Onondaga Formation (Escarpment);

Erie Canal 1 (Albany, New York, Hudson River)
Albany, New York, Hudson River;

Erie Canal 2 (Watervliet, New York)

Erie Canal 3 (Cohoes, New York)

Erie Canal 4 (Crescent, New York)

Erie Canal 5 (Rexford, New York)

Erie Canal 6 (Rome, New York)

Erie Canal 7 (toward Oneida Lake)

Erie Canal 8 (Canastota, New York)

Erie Canal 9 (Syracuse, New York)

Erie Canal 10 (Rochester, New York)

Finger Lakes Region (Upstate New York)
Finger Lakes Region; Iroquois League; Mohawk Valley; ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, AMELIA BLOOMER, SOJOURNER TRUTH, HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN: FOUR AMERICAN PIONEERS OF BLACK RIGHTS AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS, Commemorated July 20 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931) ; ELIE NAUD, (ELIAS NEAU), HUGUENOT WITNESS TO THE FAITH, 7 Sept. 1722; JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830) ; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796;

Erie Canal 11 (Buffalo, New York, Lake Erie)
Buffalo, New York, Lake Erie;

US, 1821-1822, Santa Fe Trail Folder
Santa Fe Trail Folder, 1821-1822;

Santa Fe Trail 834 Miles

Santa Fe Trail Southern Route 787 Miles

Santa Fe Trail North to Trappers Trail and Morman Trail 293 Miles

Santa Fe Trail (Franklin, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Missouri River Crossing, Arrow Rock, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Marshall, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Lexington, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Fort Osage)

Santa Fe Trail (Independence, MO)

Santa Fe Trail (Olathe, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Baldwin City, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Burlingame, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Council Grove, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Lyons, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Great Bend, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Dodge City, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Garden City, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Fort Bent, AR)

Santa Fe Trail (La Junta, CO)

Santa Fe Trail (Ulysses, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Elkhart, KS)

Santa Fe Trail (Fort Union)

Santa Fe Trail (Boise City, OK)

Santa Fe Trail (Clayton, NM)

Santa Fe Trail (Fort Laramie, WY, Trappers Trail, Mormon Trail)

Santa Fe Trail (Santa Fe, NM)

US, 1821-1822, Rio Grande River Folder
Rio Grande River, 1821-1822; Santa Fe Trail Folder, 1821-1822;

Rio Grande River Source (Canby Mountain, Continental Divide)

Rio Grande River 1 (Conejos River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 2 (Red River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 3 (Rio Hondo (Northern New Mexico) Mouth)

Rio Grande River 4 (Rio Pueblo de Taos, NM)

Rio Grande River 5 (Embudo River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 6 (Rio Chama River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 7 (Santa Fe River (New Mexico) Mouth)

Rio Grande River 8 (Las Cruces, NM)

Rio Grande River 9

Rio Grande River 10 (Rio Conchos River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 11 (Pecos River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 12 (Devils River (Texas) Mouth)

Rio Grande River 13 (Rio Salado River Mouth, Mexico)

Rio Grande River 13 (Rio Alamo River Mouth)

Rio Grande River 13 (San Juan River Mouth, Rio Grande City)

Rio Grande River Mouth (Gulf of Mexico)
Rio Grande River;

Rio Grande River

US, 1823-1879, MARIA STEWART, Hartford, Boston, New York, Baltimore, African American public speaker, abolitionist, and feminist
US, 1823-1879, MARIA STEWART, Hartford, CT (Connecticut River 24), African American public speaker, abolitionist, and feminist; W. Stewart (née Miller) (1803 - December 17, 1879) was a free-born African American who became a teacher, journalist, lecturer, abolitionist, and women's rights activist. first known American woman to speak to a mixed audience of men and women, white and black, she was also the first African-American woman to make public lectures, as well as to lecture about women's rights and make a public anti-slavery speech.[1] Liberator published two pamphlets by Stewart: Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, The Sure Foundation on Which We Must Build (which advocated abolition and black autonomy) in 1831, and another of religious meditations, Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria Stewart (1832). February 1833, she addressed Boston's African Masonic Lodge, which soon ended her brief lecturing career. Her claim that black men lacked "ambition and requisite courage" caused an uproar among the audience, and Stewart decided to retire from giving lectures. Seven months later, she gave a farewell address at a schoolroom in the African Meeting House ("Paul's Church"). this, she moved to New York City, then to Baltimore, and finally Washington, DC, where she worked as a schoolteacher, and then head matron at Freedmen's Hospital, where she eventually died. life was born Maria Miller, the child of free African-American parents in Hartford, Connecticut. In 1806, At the age of three she lost both parents and was sent to live with a minister and his family. She continued as a servant in that home until she was 15, without receiving any formal education. Between the ages of 15 and 20, Maria attended Sabbath School before church service on Sundays and developed a lifelong affinity for religious work.[2] August 10, 1826, Maria Miller married James W. Stewart, an independent shipping agent, before the Reverend Thomas Paul, pastor of the African Meeting House, in Boston, Massachusetts. She took not only his last name but his middle initial.[3] Their marriage lasted only three years and produced no children; James Stewart died in 1829. executors of his estate deprived Maria as his widow of any inheritance. This moment spurred Stewart to begin thinking about women's rights and the inequities they faced.[4] However, James had served in the War of 1812 and eventually a law was passed allowing veterans' widows their husbands' pensions.[5] speaking was the first American woman to speak to a mixed audience of men, women, whites and blacks (termed a "promiscuous" audience during the early 19th century).[6] first African-American woman to lecture about women's rights — Stewart focused particularly on the rights of black women — religion, and social justice among black people. was someone who could be called a Matronist: one of the matriarchs of black feminist thought during the Jim Crow era. also became the first African-American woman to make public anti-slavery speeches.[7] of the first African-American women to make public lectures for which there are still surviving copies, Stewart referred to her public lectures as "speeches" and not "sermons", despite their religious tone and frequent Biblical quotes. women preachers of the era, such as Jarena Lee, Julia Foote and Amanda Berry Smith, undoubtedly influenced Stewart, and Sojourner Truth later used a similar style in her public lectures.[8] delivered her speeches in Boston, to organizations including the African-American Female Intelligence Society.[9] Walker, a prosperous clothing shop owner, who was a well-known, outspoken member of the General Colored Association, also influenced Stewart. (A house at 81 Joy Street where from 1827 till 1829 Walker and his wife were tenants subsequently also became home to Stewart.)[10] A leader within Boston's African-American enclave, Walker wrote a very controversial piece on race relations entitled David Walker's Appeal to the Coloured Citizens of the World (1829). In 1830, he was found dead outside of his shop, just one year after Stewart's husband had died. events precipitated a "born again" spiritual experience for Stewart. She became a vocal and militant advocate for "Africa, freedom and God's cause".[7] However, she was far less militant than Walker, and resisted advocating violence. Instead, Stewart put forth African-American exceptionalism, the special bond she saw between God and African Americans, and advocated social and moral advancement, even as she vocally protested against social conditions African Americans experienced, and touched on several political issues. 1831, before her public speaking career began, Stewart published a small pamphlet entitled Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, the Sure Foundation on Which We Must Build. In 1832, she published a collection of religious meditations, Meditations from the Pen of Mrs. Maria Stewart. She wrote and delivered four lectures between 1832 and 1833, including an adapted version of her Religion pamphlet delivered to the African American Female Intelligence Society in April 1832.[4] While her speeches were daring and not well received, William Lloyd Garrison, a friend and the central figure of the abolitionist (anti-slavery) movement, published all four in his newspaper, The Liberator, the first three individually, and later, all four together. Garrison also recruited Stewart to write for The Liberator in 1831.[7] public-speaking career lasted three years. She delivered her farewell lectures on September 21, 1833, in the schoolroom of the African Meeting House, known then as the Belknap Street Church, and as of 2019 part of Boston's Black Heritage Trail. Upon leaving Boston, she first moved to New York, where she published her collected works in 1835. She taught school and participated in the abolitionist movement, as well as literary organization. Stewart then moved to Baltimore and eventually to Washington, D.C., where she also taught school before becoming head matron (nurse) of the Freedmen's Hospital and Asylum in Washington, later the medical school of Howard University. She ultimately died at that hospital.[11] her writings, Stewart was very cogent when she talked about the plight of the Negro. She said, "Every man has a right to express his opinion. Many think, because your skins are tinged with a sable hue, that you are an inferior race of beings ... Then why should one worm say to another, Keep you down there, while I sit up yonder; for I am better than thou. It is not the color of the skin that makes the man, but it is the principle formed within the soul.[12]" She understood that education about God and country would lift the Negro out of ignorance and poverty. "She expressed concern for African Americans' temporal affairs and eternal salvation and urged them to develop their talents and intellect, live moral lives, and devote themselves to racial activism. Stewart challenged her audience to emulate the valor of the pilgrims and American revolutionaries in demanding freedom, and advised them to establish institutions such as grocery stores and churches to support their community.[13]" Stewart's radical point of view was not well received by her audience. William Lloyd Garrison said of her, whole adult life has been devoted to the noble task of educating and elevating your people, sympathizing with them in their affliction, and assisting them in their needs; and, though advanced in years, you are still animated with the spirit of your earlier life, and striving to do what in you lies to succor the outcast, reclaim the wanderer, and lift up the fallen. In this blessed work may you be generously assisted by those to whom you may make your charitable appeals, and who may have the means to give efficiency to your efforts.[12] wanted to help the black community to do and be better as they circumnavigated their way around a country where subjugation of the Negro was the law of the land. W. Stewart was humble and deeply determined to preach the word of God. She evangelized during a time when educated women, especially educated Negro women, were frowned upon. She once wrote, lost my position in Williamsburg, Long Island, and hearing the colored people were more religious and God-fearing in the South, I wended my way to Baltimore in 1852. But I found all was not gold that glistened; and when I saw the want of means for the advancement of the common English branches, with no literary resources for the improvement of the mind scarcely, I threw myself at the foot of the Cross, resolving to make the best of a bad bargain ...[14] was shocked that the conditions in the south for African Americans did not measure up to what she imagined. She eventually took a job as a teacher where she taught reading, writing, spelling and arithmetic. was paid 50 cents a month while other teachers were paid $1. Her salary was barely enough to cover her monthly expenses. She readily admitted she was not good at handling her finances and to some degree people took advantage. evangelists were often very poor and leaned on the kindness of strangers, friends and religious leaders to help sustain them. One such friend went by the name of Elizabeth Keckley, a former slave, seamstress and civil rights activist she wrote of fondly, "There was a lady, Mrs. Keckley, I knew, formerly from Baltimore, who proved to be an ardent friend to me in my great emergency. ..."[14] Stewart was born free and Keckley a slave, but both women saw a need to be active in the burgeoning civil rights movement of the late 19th century. preaching of God's word during the 1800s was seen in society as patrilineal, even among some Negro religious institutions. As one writer said: Women in the black churches were relegated to positions that posed no real threat to the power structure maintained by preachers, deacons, and other male leaders. Women were usually assigned roles of Sunday school teachers, exhorters, secretaries, cooks, and cleaners. Such positions paralleled those reserved for women within the domestic sphere of the home."[15] believed wholeheartedly that she was called to do God's work even at great peril to herself. She used her platform to talk about racial injustices and sexism by highlighting the contradictions between the message of peace and unity preached from the pulpits of the white churches verses the reality of the slavery. According to one writer: Stewart, this ... newly freed community ... barely one generation from slavery, yearning for a fully realized freedom rather than a nominal one. Given the small size of the free Black community,[16] it is easy to assume solidarity, cohesion, and unquestioned allegiance to the Black church. just as revolutionary Americans had to grapple with what it meant to be 'American,'... Blacks ... just 50 years from slavery in Massachusetts, were grappling with their identity as free people, and there were likely competing agendas being cast forth of what Blacks should 'do' and how they should operate."[17] loved her work and her people. She knew they could be successful if they had the proper tools to succeed. That is why she started a school for the children of runaway slaves. Stewart knew education and faith in God was the great equalizer. Stewart delivered four public lectures that The Liberator published during her lifetime, addressing women's rights, moral and educational aspiration, occupational advancement, and the abolition of slavery. delivered the lecture "Why Sit Ye Here and Die?" on September 21, 1832, at Franklin Hall, Boston, to the New England Anti-Slavery Society. She demanded equal rights for African-American women: have asked several individuals of my sex, who transact business for themselves, if providing our girls were to give them the most satisfactory references, they would not be willing to grant them an equal opportunity with others? Their reply has been—for their own part, they had no objection; but as it was not the custom, were they to take them into their employ, they would be in danger of losing the public patronage. And such is the powerful force of prejudice. Let our girls possess what amiable qualities of soul they may; let their characters be fair and spotless as innocence itself; let their natural taste and ingenuity be what they may; it is impossible for scarce an individual of them to rise above the condition of servants. Ah! why is this cruel and unfeeling distinction? Is it merely because God has made our complexion to vary? If it be, O shame to soft, relenting humanity! "Tell it not in Gath! publish it not in the streets of Askelon!" Yet, after all, methinks were the American free people of color to turn their attention more assiduously to moral worth and intellectual improvement, this would be the result: prejudice would gradually diminish, and the whites would be compelled to say, unloose those fetters! the same speech Stewart emphasized that African-American women were not so different from African-American men: at many of the most worthy and interesting of us doomed to spend our lives in gentlemen's kitchens. Look at our young men, smart, active and energetic, with souls filled with ambitious fire; if they look forward, alas! what are their prospects? They can be nothing but the humblest laborers, on account of their dark complexions ... continued the theme that African Americans were subjected not only to Southern slavery but to Northern racism and economic structures: have heard much respecting the horrors of slavery; but may Heaven forbid that the generality of my color throughout these United States should experience any more of its horrors than to be a servant of servants, or hewers of wood and drawers of water! Tell us no more of southern slavery; for with few exceptions, although I may be very erroneous in my opinion, yet I consider our condition but little better than that. Stewart critiqued Northern treatment of African Americans at a meeting in which Northerners gathered to criticize and plan action against Southern treatment of African Americans. challenged the supposed dichotomy between the inhumane enslavement of the South and the normal proceedings of capitalism in the North, arguing that the relegation of African Americans to service jobs was also a great injustice and waste of human potential. In doing so, she anticipated arguments about the intersection of racism, capitalism, and sexism that would later be advanced by womanist thinkers. Christian faith strongly influenced Stewart. She often cited Biblical influences and the Holy Spirit, and implicitly critiqued societal failure to educate her and others like her: after all, methinks there are no chains so galling as the chains of ignorance—no fetters so binding as those that bind the soul, and exclude it from the vast field of useful and scientific knowledge. O, had I received the advantages of early education, my ideas would, ere now, have expanded far and wide; but, alas! I possess nothing but moral capability—no teachings but the teachings of the Holy spirit. W. Stewart delivered the speech entitled "An Address: African Rights and Liberty" to a mixed audience at the African Masonic Hall in Boston on February 27, 1833.[18] It was not received well and it would be her last public address before she embarked on a life of activism. The speech says in part: of our color have been taught to stand in fear of the white man from their earliest infancy, to work as soon as they could walk, and to call "master" before they scarce could lisp the name of mother. Continual fear and laborious servitude have in some degree lessened in us that natural force and energy which belong to man; or else, in defiance of opposition, our men, before this, would have nobly and boldly contended for their rights ... give the man of color an equal opportunity with the white from the cradle to manhood, and from manhood to the grave, and you would discover the dignified statesman, the man of science, and the philosopher. But there is no such opportunity for the sons of Africa ... I fear that our powerful ones are fully determined that there never shall be ... O ye sons of Africa, when will your voices be heard in our legislative halls, in defiance of your enemies, contending for equal rights and liberty? ... Is it possible, I exclaim, that for the want of knowledge we have labored for hundreds of years to support others, and been content to receive what they chose to give us in return? Cast your eyes about, look as far as you can see; all, all is owned by the lordly white, except here and there a lowly dwelling which the man of color, midst deprivations, fraud, and opposition has been scarce able to procure. Like King Solomon, who put neither nail nor hammer to the temple, yet received the praise; so also have the white Americans gained themselves a name, like the names of the great men that are in the earth, while in reality we have been their principal foundation and support. We have pursued the shadow, they have obtained the substance; we have performed the labor, they have received the profits; we have planted the vines, they have eaten the fruits of them.[14] very powerful and thought provoking speech about the greatness of African-American people gives us today a glimpse into the mind of an important historical figure in African-American history.[citation needed] and legacy died at Freedmen's Hospital on December 17, 1879.[11] She was buried in Graceland Cemetery,[19] which was closed two decades later after extensive litigation and most of the land used by the Washington Electric Railway. The liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) remembers Maria Stewart annually, together with William Lloyd Garrison, on December 17. is included in Daughters of Africa: An International Anthology of Words and Writings by Women of African Descent, edited by Margaret Busby (1992),[20] the title of which is inspired by Stewart's 1831 declaration,[21] in which she said: O, ye daughters of Africa, awake! awake! arise! no longer sleep nor slumber, but distinguish yourselves. Show forth to the world that ye are endowed with noble and exalted faculties.[22] Hartford, Connecticut; Maria Steward of WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON AND MARIA STEWART PROPHETIC WITESSES, 1879 Commemorated December 17 ; Stewart (Maria Miller) (1803 – December 17, 1879) was an African American public speaker, abolitionist, and feminist. She was born in Hartford, Connecticut and at the age of five became an orphan and was sent to live with a minister and his family, where she was a servant in their home. She later moved to Boston, and married James W. Stewart. He died after only three years of marriage, and she was cheated out of a considerable inheritance. She then embarked on a short (1831-1833) writing and public speaking career, for which she is best known. Her most famous speech was Religion and the pure principles of Morality The sure Foundation on which We Must Build. This and others were published in William Lloyd Garrison's The Liberator. She later moved to New York, and then to Washington, DC, where she was head matron of the Freedman's Hospital.

US, 1824, Saint Lawrence Seaway Folder, first locks 1824, Canada, huge US impact
Saint Lawrence Seaway;

Canada, Eastern Canada
Eastern Canada; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22 ; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796, Commemorated April 16 ; New Martyr Archpriest Vasily Martysz, Commemorated on May 4;

Saint Lawrence Seaway

Saint Lawrence Seaway (Western End)
Saint Lawrence Seaway;

Saint Lawarence Seaway (Sault Ste. Marie)
Saint Lawrence Seaway; Saint Mary's, Ontario (Sault Ste. Marie); John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902);

Saint Mary's, Ontario (Sault Ste. Marie)
Saint Mary's, Ontario (Sault Ste. Marie); John G. Lake, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1935, Commemorated September 16; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902);

Ontario, Canada (Saint Lawarence Seaway and Hudson Bay)
Ontario, Canada (Saint Lawarence Seaway and Hudson Bay); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1929, Commemorated January 29 ;

Ojibwa People, Ontario (Saultiers) and Michigan
Ojibwa People; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Ojibwe Lands (Outlet Lake Superior, Eastern Canada)
Ojibwe Lands: Because many Ojibwe were historically formerly located mainly around the outlet of Lake Superior, which the French colonists called Sault Ste. Marie, they referred to the Ojibwe as Saulteurs. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the prairie provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. Ojibwe who were originally located about the Mississagi River and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the Mississaugas. ROBERT McDONALD, Commemorated December 15; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Saint Lawrence Seaway (Welland Canal)
Welland Canal

Salford, Ontario
Salford, Ontario ; Aimee Semple McPherson, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1944, Commemorated September 27 ;

Saint Lawrence Seaway (Montreal)

Saint Lawrence Seaway (Eastern End)

Newfoundland
Newfoundland; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940;

Great Northern Peninsula, Northern Newfoundland
Great Northern Peninsula; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940;

St Anthony, Great Northern Penninsula, Newfoundland
St Anthony, Newfoundland and Labrador; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940 ;

Indian Harbour, Labrador (Laurentian Divide 3)
Indian Harbour, Newfoundland; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940 ;

Canada, Saint Laurence Seaway North, Laurentian Divide 1-7 Folder, Northeastern CAN

Continental Divide - Laurentian Divide

Laurentian Divide 1 (Killinig Island, Cape Chidley)
Laurentian Divide;

Laurentian Divide 2

Labrador (Laurentian Divide 2)
Labrador; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940;

Newfoundland and Labrador
Newfoundland and Labrador; WILFRED GRENFELL, MEDICAL MISSIONARY, 9 October 1940;

Laurentian Divide 3

Laurentian Divide 4

Triple Divide Peak, MT, Laurentian Divide
Triple Divide Peak (Montana); Laurentian Divide;

Canada, Saint Laurence River Folder, Eastern CAN

Saint Laurence River

Saint Laurence River Source (Lake Ontario)
Saint Laurence River;

Saint Laurence River Mouth (Gulf of Saint Laurence)

Canada, St Laurence River Mouth, Rideau Canal Folder, Montreal, Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto

Rideau Canal
Rideau Canal ;

Rideau Canal (Montreal)
Rideau Canal ;

Rideau Canal (Ottawa)
Rideau Canal ;

Ottawa, Canad (Saint Laurence Seaway)
Canada; JOHN HORDEN MISSIONARY BISHOP IN CANADA, 1893, Commemorated December 15 ; JOHN MUIR, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; Rex Humbard, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 2007, Commemorated September 21 ; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944; ERIC LIDDELL MISSIONARY TO CHINA, 1945, Commemorated February 22 ; ROLAND ALLEN, MISSION STRATEGIST, Commemorated June 8 ; Appearance of the Tikhvin Icon of the Mother of God, Commemorated on June 26;

Rideau Canal (Kingston, Ontario)

Cataraqui River Mouth (Lake Ontario)
Cataraqui River ;

Little Cataraqui Creek Mouth (Lake Ontario)

Kingston, Ontario, Eastern Canada (Saint Laurence River Source)
Kingston, Ontario; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796, Commemorated April 16 ;

St Pauls Anglican Church, 137 Queen St, Kingston, ON
St. Paul's Anglican Church, 137 Queen Street (at Montreal) , Kingston, ON K7K 1A8; MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796. Commemorated April 16;

Cataraqui, near Kingston, Ontario (Saint Laurence River Source, Lake Ontario)
MARY (MOLLY) BRANT, WITNESS TO THE FAITH AMONG THE MOHAWKS, 1796;

Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Rideau Canal, Saint Laurence River Source, Saint Laurence Seaway)
Toronto, Ontario, Canada; ORDINATION OF FLORENCE LI TIM-OI, FIRST WOMAN PRIEST IN THE ANGLICAN COMMUNION, 24 JANUARY 1944, Commemorated January 24;

Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough)
Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough); ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Peterborough, Ontario (near Toronto)
Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough); ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Petersburg, Ontario (Wilmot, between London and Toronto)
Petersburg, Ontario (between London and Toronto); ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12;

Canada, St Lawarence Divide Folder, Southeastern CAN

Continental Divide - St Lawrence Divide

St Lawrence Divide (Cape Breton Island)

St Lawrence Divide (New Brunswick)

New Brunswick Province, Eastern Canada
New Brunswick Province, Canada; William Lloyd Garrison of WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON AND MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESSES, 1879, Commemorated December 17 ;

All Saints Cathedral, Halifax, New Brunswick Province, 1907
All Saints Cathedral, Halifax, 1907 ; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16;

St Lawrence Divide (Lake Champlain, near Rutland, VT)

St Lawrence Divide (near Ottawa, Canada)

St Lawrence Divide (Oneida, NY)

St Lawrence Divide (Finger Lakes)

St Lawrence Divide (Erie)

Saint Lawarence Divide (Cleveland)

Saint Lawrence Divide (Chicago)

St Lawrence Divide (Milwaukee)

St Lawrence Divide (Oneida, WI)

US, 1825-1829, President, John Quincy Adams, statesman, diplomat, ex federalist, ex anti mason, Whig, Florida, abolitionist
US President, 1825-1829, John Quincy Adams; Quincy Adams (July 11, 1767 - February 23, 1848) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, and diarist who served as the sixth president of the United States, from 1825 to 1829. previously served as the eighth United States Secretary of State from 1817 to 1825. During his long diplomatic and political career, Adams also served as an ambassador, and as a member of the United States Senate and House of Representatives representing Massachusetts. was the eldest son of John Adams, who served as the second U.S. president from 1797 to 1801, and First Lady Abigail Adams. Initially a Federalist like his father, he won election to the presidency as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and in the mid-1830s became affiliated with the Whig Party. in Braintree, Massachusetts[4] (now part of the town of Quincy), Adams spent much of his youth in Europe, where his father served as a diplomat. After returning to the United States, Adams established a successful legal practice in Boston. 1794, President George Washington appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to the Netherlands, and Adams would serve in high-ranking diplomatic posts until 1801, when Thomas Jefferson took office as president. leaders in Massachusetts arranged for Adams's election to the United States Senate in 1802, but Adams broke with the Federalist Party over foreign policy and was denied re-election. 1809, President James Madison, a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, appointed Adams as the U.S. ambassador to Russia. Adams held diplomatic posts for the duration of Madison's presidency, and he served as part of the American delegation that negotiated an end to the War of 1812. 1817, newly elected president James Monroe selected Adams as his Secretary of State. In that role, Adams negotiated the Adams–Onís Treaty, which provided for the American acquisition of Florida. also helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine, which became a key tenet of U.S. foreign policy. 1818, Adams was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.[5] Andrew Jackson, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay — all members of the Democratic-Republican Party — competed in the 1824 presidential election. Because no candidate won a majority of electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a contingent election, which Adams won with the support of Clay. president, Adams called for an ambitious agenda that included federally funded infrastructure projects, the establishment of a national university, and engagement with the countries of Latin America, but Congress refused to pass many of his initiatives. Adams's presidency, the Democratic-Republican Party polarized into two major camps: the National Republican Party, which supported President Adams, and Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party. The Democrats proved to be more effective political organizers than Adams and his National Republican supporters, and Jackson trounced Adams in the 1828 presidential election, the second president (after his father) to fail to win re-election. than retiring from public service, Adams won election to the House of Representatives, where he would serve from 1831 to his death in 1848. remains the only ex-president to be elected to the chamber (although John Tyler was elected a Confederate representative, but died before he could take his seat). failing attempts at election as Governor of Massachusetts and re-election to the Senate, Adams joined the Anti-Masonic Party in the early 1830s before becoming a member of the Whig Party, which united those opposed to President Jackson. his time in Congress, Adams became increasingly critical of slavery and of the Southern leaders who he believed controlled the Democratic Party. He was particularly opposed to the annexation of Texas and the Mexican–American War, which he saw as a war to extend slavery and its political grip on Congress. He also led the repeal of the "gag rule", which had prevented the House of Representatives from debating petitions to abolish slavery. Historians concur that Adams was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history; they typically rank him as an average president, as he had an ambitious agenda but could not get it passed by Congress. JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26; William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30;

US, 1826, Pennsylvania Main Line Canal Folder, started 1826, completed 1834
Pennsylvania Main Line Canal ;

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 1 (Philidelphia)
Pennsylvania Main Line Canal ;

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 2

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 3

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 4

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 5 (Hollidaysburg)

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 6 (Johnstown)

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal 7 (Pittsburg)
Pennsylvania Main Line Canal

Pennsylvania Main Line Canal (Philadelphia to Pittsburg)

US, 1829-1837, President, Andrew Jackson, war hero, Dem party founder, expansionist, common man, no natnl debt
US President, 1829-1837, Andrew Jackson; Jackson (March 15, 1767 - June 8, 1845) was an American lawyer, soldier, and statesman who served as the seventh president of the United States from 1829 to 1837. being elected to the presidency, Jackson gained fame as a general in the United States Army and served in both houses of the U.S. Congress. expansionist president, Jackson sought to advance the rights of the "common man"[1] against a "corrupt aristocracy"[2] and to preserve the Union. in the colonial Carolinas in the decade before the American Revolutionary War, Jackson became a frontier lawyer and married Rachel Donelson Robards. served briefly in the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate, representing Tennessee. resigning, he served as a justice on the Tennessee Supreme Court from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a property later known as The Hermitage, and became a wealthy, slaveowning planter. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander the following year. led troops during the Creek War of 1813–1814, winning the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. The subsequent Treaty of Fort Jackson required the Creek surrender of vast lands in present-day Alabama and Georgia. the concurrent war against the British, Jackson's victory in 1815 at the Battle of New Orleans made him a national hero. then led U.S. forces in the First Seminole War, which led to the annexation of Florida from Spain. briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in 1824, winning a plurality of the popular and electoral vote. As no candidate won an electoral majority, the House of Representatives elected John Quincy Adams in a contingent election. reaction to the alleged "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Henry Clay and the ambitious agenda of President Adams, Jackson's supporters founded the Democratic Party. ran again in 1828, defeating Adams in a landslide. Jackson faced the threat of secession by South Carolina over what opponents called the "Tariff of Abominations". The crisis was defused when the tariff was amended, and Jackson threatened the use of military force if South Carolina attempted to secede. Congress, Henry Clay led the effort to reauthorize the Second Bank of the United States. Jackson, regarding the Bank as a corrupt institution that benefited the wealthy at the expense of ordinary Americans, vetoed the renewal of its charter. After a lengthy struggle, Jackson and his allies thoroughly dismantled the Bank. 1835, Jackson became the only president to completely pay off the national debt, fulfilling a longtime goal. Jackson pursued numerous reforms designed to eliminate waste and corruption, his presidency marked the beginning of the ascendancy of the party "spoils system" in American politics. 1830, Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act, which forcibly removed most members of the major tribes of the Southeast to Indian Territory; these removals were subsequently known as the Trail of Tears. The relocation process dispossessed these nations of their land and resulted in widespread death and disease. opposed the abolitionist movement, which grew stronger in his second term. In foreign affairs, Jackson's administration concluded a "most favored nation" treaty with the United Kingdom, settled claims of damages against France from the Napoleonic Wars, and recognized the Republic of Texas. January 1835, he survived the first assassination attempt on a sitting president. his retirement, Jackson remained active in Democratic Party politics, supporting the presidencies of Martin Van Buren and James K. Polk. fearful of its effects on the slavery debate, Jackson advocated the annexation of Texas, which was accomplished shortly before his death. has been widely revered in the United States as an advocate for democracy and the common man. Many of his actions proved divisive, garnering both fervent support and strong opposition from many in the country. reputation has suffered since the 1970s, largely due to his anti-abolitionist views and policy of the forcible removal of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands. surveys of historians and scholars have ranked Jackson favorably among U.S. presidents. PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; JOHN HENRY HOBART, BISHOP OF NEW YORK (12 SEPT 1830); PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; ABSALOM JONES and Richard Allen, (13 FEB 1818) ; RICHARD ALLEN, FIRST BISHOP OF THE AFRICAN METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, 1831. Commemorated March 26; William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ;

US, 1830, Old Spanish Trai, NM-CAl (same as auto trail - Jacksonville Beach, Florida to San Diego, California
Old Spanish Trail, 1830;

Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) Jacksonville Beach, Florida, 1830

Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) - Jacksonville Beach, Florida
Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) - San Diego, California to Jacksonville Beach, Florida;

Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) - San Diego, California to Jacksonville Beach, Florida
Old Spanish Trail (auto trail) - San Diego, California to Jacksonville Beach, Florida;

US, 1831-1896, HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER, Uncle Tom's Cabin, caused anti-slavery North & hatred South, underground railroad
US, 1831-1896, HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER, Litchfield, Connecticut (Naugatuck River West Branch), Uncle Tom's Cabin, caused anti-slavery North & hatred South, underground railroad, fugitive slave law inspired the book, mother of 7; Litchfield, Connecticut; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Beecher Stowe (June 14, 1811 – July 1, 1896) was an American abolitionist and author. novel Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) depicted life for African-Americans under slavery; it reached millions as a novel and play, and became influential in the United States and United Kingdom and made the political issues of the 1850s regarding slavery tangible to millions, energizing anti-slavery forces in the American North, while provoking widespread anger in the South. Upon meeting Stowe, Abraham Lincoln allegedly remarked, "So you're the little lady who started this great war!" The quote is regarded as apocryphal. Beecher was born in Litchfield, Connecticut on June 14, 1811. was the daughter of outspoken religious leader Lyman Beecher and Roxana Foote, a deeply religious woman who died when Stowe was four years old. was the sister of the educator and author, Catharine Beecher, clergymen Henry Ward Beecher, Charles Beecher, and Edward Beecher. enrolled in the seminary run by her eldest sister Catharine, where she received a traditionally "male" education. the age of 21, she moved to Cincinnati, Ohio to join her father, who had become the president of Lane Theological Seminary, in 1836 she married Calvin Ellis Stowe, a professor at the seminary and an ardent critic of slavery. Stowes supported the Underground Railroad and housed several fugitive slaves in their home. They eventually moved to Brunswick, Maine, where Calvin taught at Bowdoin College. 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Law, prohibiting assistance to fugitives. Stowe was moved to present her objections on paper, and in June 1851, the first installment of Uncle Tom's Cabin appeared in the antislavery journal National Era. 40-year-old mother of seven children sparked a national debate and, as Abraham Lincoln is said to have noted, a war. Stowe died on July 1, 1896, at age eighty-five, in Hartford, Connecticut. — more at Wikipedia

US, 1836-1896, ANNE AYRES, NYC and Long Island, founded first Episcopal religious order for women in US
US, , ANNE AYRES, St. Johnland, in King's Park, Long Island and St Luke's Hospital1836-1896, NYC, founded first Episcopal religious order for women in US; Saint Johnland House ; St Johnland Nursing Center, History; Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896), Commemorated April 8; ANNE AYRES, RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896), Commemorated April 8; Ayres (January 3, 1816 – February 9, 1896) was a nun and the founder of the first Episcopalian religious order for women. in London, she emigrated to the United States in 1836; settling in New York City. She tutored the daughters of wealthy families, and in 1845 she decided to follow a religious life, after hearing a speech by Episcopal clergyman William Augustus Muhlenberg. were no religious orders specifically for women in the Episcopal Church so Ayres was consecrated a “sister of the Holy Communion”. She gathered other women as teachers at a Parish school and as charity workers, and they formed the Sisterhood of the Holy Communion in 1852. order opened an infirmary in 1853, before moving to St. Luke's Hospital. Ayres helped Muhlenberg found St. Johnland, in King's Park, Long Island, which was intended to be a rural utopia for poor inner-city people. wrote a biography of William Augustus Muhlenberg, first published in 1880 as The Life and Work of William Augustus Muhlenberg. — from Wikipedia

US, 1837-1841, President, Martin VanBuren, Dutch, Democrat founder but Abolitionist, opposed Texas annexation as slave state,
US President, 1837-1841, Martin VanBuren ; Van Buren (December 5, 1782 - July 24, 1862) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the eighth president of the United States from 1837 to 1841. founder of the Democratic Party, he had previously served as the ninth governor of New York, the tenth United States secretary of state, and the eighth vice president of the United States. won the 1836 presidential election with the endorsement of popular outgoing President Andrew Jackson and the organizational strength of the Democratic Party. was the third incumbent vice president to be elected president, and the last until 1988. lost his 1840 reelection bid to the Whig nominee, William Henry Harrison, thanks in part to the poor economic conditions surrounding the Panic of 1837. Later in his life, Van Buren emerged as an elder statesman and an important anti-slavery leader who led the Free Soil Party ticket in the 1848 presidential election. Buren was born in Kinderhook, New York, where most residents were of Dutch descent and spoke Dutch as their primary language. was the first president to have been born after the American Revolution—in which his father served as a patriot—and is the only president to have spoken English as a second language. as a lawyer, he quickly became involved in politics as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and won a seat in the New York State Senate, and then in the United States Senate in 1821. the leader of the Bucktails faction, Van Buren emerged as the most influential politician from New York in the 1820s and established a political machine known as the Albany Regency. Following the 1824 presidential election, Van Buren led to re-establish a two-party system with partisan differences based on ideology rather than personalities or sectional differences; he supported Jackson's candidacy in the 1828 presidential election with this goal in mind. ran successfully for governor of New York to support Jackson's campaign, but resigned shortly after Jackson was inaugurated so that he could accept appointment as Jackson's secretary of state. his cabinet position, Van Buren became a key Jackson advisor, and built the organizational structure for the coalescing Democratic Party. He ultimately resigned to help resolve the Petticoat affair, and briefly served as the U.S. ambassador to the United Kingdom. Jackson's behest, the 1832 Democratic National Convention nominated Van Buren for vice president of the United States, and he took office after the Democratic ticket won the 1832 presidential election. Jackson's strong support, Van Buren won the presidential nomination at the 1835 Democratic National Convention, and he defeated several Whig opponents in the 1836 presidential election. his presidency soon eroded with his response to the Panic of 1837, which centered on his Independent Treasury system, a plan under which the Federal government of the United States would store its funds in vaults rather than in banks; more conservative Democrats and Whigs in Congress ultimately delayed his plan from being implemented until 1840. presidency was further marred by the costly Second Seminole War (a result of continuing Jackson's Indian removal policy); and his refusal to admit Texas to the Union as a slave state, done as an attempt to avoid heightened sectional tensions. In 1840, a surge of new voters—who nicknamed him "Martin Van Ruin"—helped turn him out of office. Buren was initially the leading candidate for the Democratic Party's nomination again in 1844, but his continued opposition to the annexation of Texas angered Southern Democrats, leading to the nomination of James K. Polk. Buren was the newly formed Free Soil Party's presidential nominee in 1848, and his candidacy most likely helped Whig nominee Zachary Taylor defeat Democrat Lewis Cass. Van Buren returned to the Democrats after 1848, but grew increasingly opposed to slavery, and became one of the party's outspoken abolitionists. He supported Abraham Lincoln's policies during the American Civil War. He died in Kinderhook in July 1862, aged 79. historical rankings, historians and political scientists often rank Van Buren as an average or below-average U.S. president, due to his handling of the Panic of 1837. However, Van Buren is largely remembered today as a leader in the formation of the two-party system in the United States. PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; PHILANDER CHASE, BISHOP OF OHIO, AND OF ILLINOIS, 22 SEPT. 1852; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ;

US, 1838-1876, JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, Missionary, Queens, NY, 1844 Nashotah House WI, Chippewa Indians
US, 1838-1876, JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary, Flushing Institute, Flushing, Queens, NY, 1844 Nashotah House WI, Chippewa Indians ; Flushing Institute, Flushing, NY; JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); was born 27 June 1818 near Philadelphia, and attended high school at the Flushing Institute, founded by William Augustus Muhlenberg (see 8 April), who inspired him to resolve at the age of sixteen to devote himself to missionary activity. 1844, by then a priest, he went to Wisconsin (then on the frontier) with two classmates, under the direction of Bishop Kemper, to found Nashotah House, intended as a monastic community, a seminary, and a center for theological work. It continues today as a seminary and representative of one traditional aspect of Anglican thought and practice. a letter to a friend, Breck described the seminary in his day as follows: The students boarding with us are all theological. They are chiefly young men, sons of the farmers, and all communicants of the Church. Our students, like ourselves, are poor, but not the less worthy for all that. They seek the Ministry, but are unable to attain it without aid. We have a house; for this we pay no rent; it belongs to the Church, and so do we. We have land. They work four hours a day for their board and washing, and we give them their education without cost. Thus their clothing is their only expense, and to enable them to purchase this, we give them six weeks vacation during the harvest, when they can earn the highest wages. Brother Adams and myself work four hours, except when we are teaching or doing Missionary labor. We must all work for our board. That is the only way in which they will feel it their duty to labor and to study, and the only way in which our people will feel their duty to the Church, and to ourselves as clergy of the same. We rise at 5am, Matins at 6. The Morning Service of the Church at 9. On Wednesdays and Fridays, the Litany at 12. On Thursdays, the Holy Eucharist at the same hour of 12. The Evening service of the Church at 3, and Family Prayer or Vespers at 6:30 or 7pm. Our students labor between 7 and 9 in the morning, and 1 and 3 in the afternoon. In 1850, Breck moved on to Minnesota, where he founded schools for boys and girls, and the Seabury Divinity School at Faribault (now part of Seabury-Western Seminary in Chicago). He also began mission work among the Chippewa Indians, and laid the foundation for work among them by Christian priests from their own people. In 1867 he moved on to California to build another seminary. He died there in 1876. by James Kiefer

US, 1838-1895, Frederick Douglass, escaped slave and leader in abolition movement
Maryland, 1838-1895, Frederick Douglass, escaped slave and leader in abolition movement; Douglass (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, c. February 1817[a] - February 20, 1895) was an American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. escaping from slavery in Maryland, he became a national leader of the abolitionist movement in Massachusetts and New York, becoming famous for his oratory[5] and incisive antislavery writings. Accordingly, he was described by abolitionists in his time as a living counterexample to slaveholders' arguments that slaves lacked the intellectual capacity to function as independent American citizens.[6][7] Likewise, Northerners at the time found it hard to believe that such a great orator had once been a slave.[8] wrote three autobiographies, describing his experiences as a slave in his Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845), which became a bestseller and was influential in promoting the cause of abolition, as was his second book, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855). Following the Civil War, Douglass was active campaigner for the rights of freed slaves and wrote his last autobiography, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass. First published in 1881 and revised in 1892, three years before his death, the book covers events both during and after the Civil War. Douglass also actively supported women's suffrage, and held several public offices. Without his permission, Douglass became the first African-American nominated for Vice President of the United States as the running mate and Vice Presidential nominee of Victoria Woodhull, on the Equal Rights Party ticket.[9] believed in dialogue and in making alliances across racial and ideological divides, as well as in the liberal values of the U.S. Constitution.[10] When radical abolitionists, under the motto "No Union with Slaveholders", criticized Douglass's willingness to engage in dialogue with slave owners, he replied: "I would unite with anybody to do right and with nobody to do wrong."[11] as a slave Augustus Washington Bailey was born into slavery on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Talbot County, Maryland. The plantation was between Hillsboro and Cordova;[12] his birthplace was likely his grandmother's cabin[b] east of Tappers Corner, (38.8845°N 75.958°W) and west of Tuckahoe Creek.[13][14][15] In his first autobiography, Douglass stated: "I have no accurate knowledge of my age, never having seen any authentic record containing it."[16] However, based on the extant records of Douglass's former owner, Aaron Anthony, historian Dickson J. Preston determined that Douglass was born in February 1818.[3] Though the exact date of his birth is unknown, he chose to celebrate February 14 as his birthday, remembering that his mother called him her "Little Valentine."[17][18] family was of mixed race, which likely included Native American[19] and African on his mother's side, as well as European.[20] In contrast, his father was "almost certainly white", according to historian David W. Blight in his 2018 biography of Douglass.[21] Douglass said his mother Harriet Bailey gave him his name Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey and, after he escaped to the North in September 1838, he took the surname Douglass, having already dropped his two middle names.[22] later wrote of his earliest times with his mother:[23] The opinion was…whispered that my master was my father; but of the correctness of this opinion I know nothing. … My mother and I were separated when I was but an infant. … It is a common custom, in the part of Maryland from which I ran away, to part children from their mothers at a very early age. … I do not recollect of ever seeing my mother by the light of day. She was with me in the night. She would lie down with me, and get me to sleep, but long before I waked she was gone. separation from his mother during infancy, young Frederick lived with his maternal grandmother Betsy Bailey, who was also a slave, and his maternal grandfather Isaac, who was free.[24] Betsy would live until 1849.[25] mother remained on the plantation about 12 miles (19 km) away, only visiting Frederick a few times before her death when he was 7 years old. learning and experience Auld family of a series on Slavery the age of 6, Frederick was separated from his grandparents and moved to the Wye House plantation, where Aaron Anthony worked as overseer.[15] After Anthony died in 1826, Douglass was given to Lucretia Auld, wife of Thomas Auld, who sent him to serve Thomas' brother Hugh Auld in Baltimore. Douglass felt that he was lucky to be in the city, where he said slaves were almost freemen, compared to those on plantations. Douglass was about 12, Hugh Auld's wife Sophia began teaching him the alphabet. From the day he arrived, she saw to it that Douglass was properly fed and clothed, and that he slept in a bed with sheets and a blanket.[26] Douglass described her as a kind and tender-hearted woman, who treated him "as she supposed one human being ought to treat another."[27] Auld disapproved of the tutoring, feeling that literacy would encourage slaves to desire freedom. Douglass later referred to this as the "first decidedly antislavery lecture" he had ever heard. "'Very well, thought I,'" wrote Douglass. "'Knowledge unfits a child to be a slave.' I instinctively assented to the proposition, and from that moment I understood the direct pathway from slavery to freedom."[28] her husband's influence, Sophia came to believe that education and slavery were incompatible and one day snatched a newspaper away from Douglass.[29] She stopped teaching him altogether and hid all potential reading materials, including her Bible, from him.[26] In his autobiography, Douglass related how he learned to read from white children in the neighborhood, and by observing the writings of the men he worked with.[30] continued, secretly, to teach himself to read and write. He later often said, "knowledge is the pathway from slavery to freedom."[31] As Douglass began to read newspapers, pamphlets, political materials, and books of every description, this new realm of thought led him to question and condemn the institution of slavery. later years, Douglass credited The Columbian Orator, an anthology that he discovered at about age 12, with clarifying and defining his views on freedom and human rights. First published in 1797, the book is a classroom reader, containing essays, speeches, and dialogues, to assist students in learning reading and grammar. He later learned that his mother had also been literate, about which he would later declare: I am quite willing, and even happy, to attribute any love of letters I possess, and for which I have got—despite of prejudices—only too much credit, not to my admitted Anglo-Saxon paternity, but to the native genius of my sable, unprotected, and uncultivated mother—a woman, who belonged to a race whose mental endowments it is, at present, fashionable to hold in disparagement and contempt.[32] Freeland Douglass was hired out to William Freeland, he taught other slaves on the plantation to read the New Testament at a weekly Sunday school. As word spread, the interest among slaves in learning to read was so great that in any week, more than 40 slaves would attend lessons. For about six months, their study went relatively unnoticed. While Freeland remained complacent about their activities, other plantation owners became incensed about their slaves being educated. One Sunday they burst in on the gathering, armed with clubs and stones, to disperse the congregation permanently. Edward Covey In 1833, Thomas Auld took Douglass back from Hugh ("[a]s a means of punishing Hugh," Douglass later wrote). Thomas sent Douglass to work for Edward Covey, a poor farmer who had a reputation as a "slave-breaker". He whipped Douglass so frequently that his wounds had little time to heal. Douglass later said the frequent whippings broke his body, soul, and spirit.[33] The 16-year-old Douglass finally rebelled against the beatings, however, and fought back. After Douglass won a physical confrontation, Covey never tried to beat him again.[34][35] Recounting his beatings at Covey's farm in Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, Douglass described himself as "a man transformed into a brute!"[36] Still, Douglass came to see his physical fight with Covey as life-transforming, and introduced the story in his autobiography as such: "You have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man."[37] From slavery to freedom Douglass first tried to escape from Freeland, who had hired him from his owner, but was unsuccessful. In 1837, Douglass met and fell in love with Anna Murray, a free black woman in Baltimore about five years his senior. Her free status strengthened his belief in the possibility of gaining his own freedom. Murray encouraged him and supported his efforts by aid and money.[38] Anna Murray Douglass, Douglass's wife for 44 years, portrait ca. 1860 On September 3, 1838, Douglass successfully escaped by boarding a northbound train of the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore Railroad.[39] The area where he boarded was thought to be a short distance east of the train depot, in a recently developed neighborhood between the modern neighborhoods of Harbor East and Little Italy. This depot was at President and Fleet Streets, east of "The Basin" of the Baltimore harbor, on the northwest branch of the Patapsco River. Research cited in 2021, however, suggests that Douglass in fact boarded the train at the Canton Depot of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad on Boston Street, in the Canton neighborhood of Baltimore, further east.[40][41][42] Young Douglass reached Havre de Grace, Maryland, in Harford County, in the northeast corner of the state, along the southwest shore of the Susquehanna River, which flowed into the Chesapeake Bay. Although this placed him only some 20 miles (32 km) from the Maryland–Pennsylvania state line, it was easier to continue by rail through Delaware, another slave state. Dressed in a sailor's uniform provided to him by Murray, who also gave him part of her savings to cover his travel costs, he carried identification papers and protection papers that he had obtained from a free black seaman.[38][43][44] Douglass crossed the wide Susquehanna River by the railroad's steam-ferry at Havre de Grace to Perryville on the opposite shore, in Cecil County, then continued by train across the state line to Wilmington, Delaware, a large port at the head of the Delaware Bay. From there, because the rail line was not yet completed, he went by steamboat along the Delaware River further northeast to the "Quaker City" of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, an anti-slavery stronghold. He continued to the safe house of noted abolitionist David Ruggles in New York City. His entire journey to freedom took less than 24 hours.[45] Douglass later wrote of his arrival in New York City: I have often been asked, how I felt when first I found myself on free soil. And my readers may share the same curiosity. There is scarcely anything in my experience about which I could not give a more satisfactory answer. A new world had opened upon me. If life is more than breath, and the "quick round of blood," I lived more in one day than in a year of my slave life. It was a time of joyous excitement which words can but tamely describe. In a letter written to a friend soon after reaching New York, I said: "I felt as one might feel upon escape from a den of hungry lions." Anguish and grief, like darkness and rain, may be depicted; but gladness and joy, like the rainbow, defy the skill of pen or pencil.[46] Once Douglass had arrived, he sent for Murray to follow him north to New York. She brought the basics for them to set up a home. They were married on September 15, 1838, by a black Presbyterian minister, just eleven days after Douglass had reached New York.[45] At first they adopted Johnson as their married name, to divert attention.[38] Abolitionist and preacher Frederick Douglass, c. 1840s, in his 20s The couple settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts, (an abolitionist center, full of former slaves), in 1838, moving to Lynn, Massachusetts, in 1841.[47] After meeting and staying with Nathan and Mary Johnson, they adopted Douglass as their married name:[38] Douglass had grown up using his mother's surname of Bailey; after escaping slavery he had changed his surname first to Stanley and then to Johnson. In New Bedford, the latter was such a common name that he wanted one that was more distinctive, and asked Nathan Johnson to choose a suitable surname. Nathan suggested "Douglass",[48] after having read the poem The Lady of the Lake by Walter Scott, in which two of the principal characters have the surname "Douglas".[49] The home and meetinghouse of the Johnsons, where Douglass and his wife lived in New Bedford, Massachusetts Douglass thought of joining a white Methodist Church, but was disappointed, from the beginning, upon finding that it was segregated. Later, he joined the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, an independent black denomination first established in New York City, which counted among its members Sojourner Truth and Harriet Tubman.[50] He became a licensed preacher in 1839,[51] which helped him to hone his oratorical skills. He held various positions, including steward, Sunday-school superintendent, and sexton. In 1840, Douglass delivered a speech in Elmira, New York, then a station on the Underground Railroad, in which a black congregation would form years later, becoming the region's largest church by 1940.[52] Douglass also joined several organizations in New Bedford, and regularly attended abolitionist meetings. He subscribed to William Lloyd Garrison's weekly newspaper, The Liberator. He later said that "no face and form ever impressed me with such sentiments [of the hatred of slavery] as did those of William Lloyd Garrison." So deep was this influence that in his last biography, Douglass said "his paper took a place in my heart second only to The Bible."[53] Garrison was likewise impressed with Douglass, and had written about his anti-colonialist stance in The Liberator as early as 1839. Douglass first heard Garrison speak in 1841, at a lecture that Garrison gave in Liberty Hall, New Bedford. At another meeting, Douglass was unexpectedly invited to speak. After telling his story, Douglass was encouraged to become an anti-slavery lecturer. A few days later, Douglass spoke at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society's annual convention, in Nantucket. Then 23 years old, Douglass conquered his nervousness and gave an eloquent speech about his rough life as a slave. William Lloyd Garrison, abolitionist and one of Douglass's first friends in the North While living in Lynn, Douglass engaged in early protest against segregated transportation. In September 1841, at Lynn Central Square station, Douglass and friend James N. Buffum were thrown off an Eastern Railroad train because Douglass refused to sit in the segregated railroad coach.[47][54][55][56] In 1843, Douglass joined other speakers in the American Anti-Slavery Society's "Hundred Conventions" project, a six-month tour at meeting halls throughout the eastern and midwestern United States. During this tour, slavery supporters frequently accosted Douglass. At a lecture in Pendleton, Indiana, an angry mob chased and beat Douglass before a local Quaker family, the Hardys, rescued him. His hand was broken in the attack; it healed improperly and bothered him for the rest of his life.[57] A stone marker in Falls Park in the Pendleton Historic District commemorates this event. In 1847, Frederick Douglass explained to Garrison, "I have no love for America, as such; I have no patriotism. I have no country. What country have I? The Institutions of this Country do not know me—do not recognize me as a man."[58] Further information: Abolitionism in New Bedford, Massachusetts Autobiography Douglass's best-known work is his first autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, written during his time in Lynn, Massachusetts[59] and published in 1845. At the time, some skeptics questioned whether a black man could have produced such an eloquent piece of literature. The book received generally positive reviews and became an immediate bestseller. Within three years, it had been reprinted nine times, with 11,000 copies circulating in the United States. It was also translated into French and Dutch and published in Europe. Douglass published three versions of his autobiography during his lifetime (and revised the third of these), each time expanding on the previous one. The 1845 Narrative was his biggest seller, and probably allowed him to raise the funds to gain his legal freedom the following year, as discussed below. In 1855, Douglass published My Bondage and My Freedom. In 1881, after the Civil War, Douglass published Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, which he revised in 1892. Travels to Ireland and Great Britain Plaque to Frederick Douglass, West Bell St., Dundee, Scotland Douglass in 1847, around 29 years of age Douglass's friends and mentors feared that the publicity would draw the attention of his ex-owner, Hugh Auld, who might try to get his "property" back. They encouraged Douglass to tour Ireland, as many former slaves had done. Douglass set sail on the Cambria for Liverpool, England, on August 16, 1845. He traveled in Ireland as the Great Famine was beginning. The feeling of freedom from American racial discrimination amazed Douglass:[60] Eleven days and a half gone and I have crossed three thousand miles of the perilous deep. Instead of a democratic government, I am under a monarchical government. Instead of the bright, blue sky of America, I am covered with the soft, grey fog of the Emerald Isle [Ireland]. I breathe, and lo! the chattel [slave] becomes a man. I gaze around in vain for one who will question my equal humanity, claim me as his slave, or offer me an insult. I employ a cab—I am seated beside white people—I reach the hotel—I enter the same door—I am shown into the same parlour—I dine at the same table—and no one is offended ... I find myself regarded and treated at every turn with the kindness and deference paid to white people. When I go to church, I am met by no upturned nose and scornful lip to tell me, 'We don't allow niggers in here!' Still, Douglass was astounded by the extreme levels of poverty he encountered, much of it reminding him of his experiences in slavery. In a letter to William Lloyd Garrison, Douglass wrote "I see much here to remind me of my former condition, and I confess I should be ashamed to lift up my voice against American slavery, but that I know the cause of humanity is one the world over. He who really and truly feels for the American slave, cannot steel his heart to the woes of others; and he who thinks himself an abolitionist, yet cannot enter into the wrongs of others, has yet to find a true foundation for his anti-slavery faith."[61] He also met and befriended the Irish nationalist and strident abolitionist Daniel O'Connell,[62][63] who was to be a great inspiration.[64][65] Douglass spent two years in Ireland and Great Britain, lecturing in churches and chapels. His draw was such that some facilities were "crowded to suffocation". One example was his hugely popular London Reception Speech, which Douglass delivered in May 1846 at Alexander Fletcher's Finsbury Chapel. Douglass remarked that in England he was treated not "as a color, but as a man."[66] In 1846, Douglass met with Thomas Clarkson, one of the last living British abolitionists, who had persuaded Parliament to abolish slavery in Great Britain's colonies.[67] During this trip Douglass became legally free, as British supporters led by Anna Richardson and her sister-in-law Ellen of Newcastle upon Tyne raised funds to buy his freedom from his American owner Thomas Auld.[66][68] Many supporters tried to encourage Douglass to remain in England but, with his wife still in Massachusetts and three million of his black brethren in bondage in the United States, he returned to America in the spring of 1847,[66] soon after the death of Daniel O'Connell.[69] In the 21st century, historical plaques were installed on buildings in Cork and Waterford, Ireland, and London to celebrate Douglass's visit: the first is on the Imperial Hotel in Cork and was unveiled on August 31, 2012; the second is on the façade of Waterford City Hall, unveiled on October 7, 2013. It commemorates his speech there on October 9, 1845.[70] The third plaque adorns Nell Gwynn House, South Kensington in London, at the site of an earlier house where Douglass stayed with the British abolitionist George Thompson.[71] Douglass spent time in Scotland and was appointed "Scotland's Antislavery agent."[72] He made anti-slavery speeches and wrote letters back to the USA. He considered the city of Edinburgh to be elegant, grand and very welcoming. Maps of the places in the city that were important to his stay are held by the National Library of Scotland.[73][74] A plaque and a mural on Gilmore Place in Edinburgh mark his stay there in 1846. "A variety of collaborative projects are currently [in 2021] underway to commemorate Frederick Douglass’s journey and visit to Ireland in the 19th century."[75] Return to the United States Douglass circa 1847–52, around his early 30s After returning to the U.S. in 1847, using £500 (equivalent to $46,030 in 2019) given to him by English supporters,[66] Douglass started publishing his first abolitionist newspaper, the North Star, from the basement of the Memorial AME Zion Church in Rochester, New York.[76] Originally, Pittsburgh journalist Martin Delany was co-editor but Douglass didn't feel he brought in enough subscriptions, and they parted ways.[77] The North Star's motto was "Right is of no Sex – Truth is of no Color – God is the Father of us all, and we are all brethren."[78] The AME Church and North Star vigorously opposed the mostly white American Colonization Society and its proposal to send blacks back to Africa. Douglass also soon split with Garrison, perhaps because the North Star competed with Garrison's National Anti-Slavery Standard and Marius Robinson's Anti-Slavery Bugle. Besides publishing the North Star and delivering speeches, Douglass also participated in the Underground Railroad. He and his wife provided lodging and resources in their home to more than four hundred escaped slaves.[79] Douglass also came to disagree with Garrison. Earlier Douglass had agreed with Garrison's position that the Constitution was pro-slavery, because of the three-fifths clause its compromises related to apportionment of Congressional seats, based on partial counting of slave populations with state totals; and protection of the international slave trade through 1807. Garrison had burned copies of the Constitution to express his opinion. However, Lysander Spooner published The Unconstitutionality of Slavery (1846), which examined the United States Constitution as an anti-slavery document. Douglass's change of opinion about the Constitution and his splitting from Garrison around 1847 became one of the abolitionist movement's most notable divisions. Douglass angered Garrison by saying that the Constitution could and should be used as an instrument in the fight against slavery.[80] In September 1848, on the tenth anniversary of his escape, Douglass published an open letter addressed to his former master, Thomas Auld, berating him for his conduct, and inquiring after members of his family still held by Auld.[81][82] In the course of the letter, Douglass adeptly transitions from formal and restrained to familiar and then to impassioned. At one point he is the proud parent, describing his improved circumstances and the progress of his own four young children. But then he dramatically shifts tone: Oh! sir, a slaveholder never appears to me so completely an agent of hell, as when I think of and look upon my dear children. It is then that my feelings rise above my control. … The grim horrors of slavery rise in all their ghastly terror before me, the wails of millions pierce my heart, and chill my blood. I remember the chain, the gag, the bloody whip, the deathlike gloom overshadowing the broken spirit of the fettered bondman, the appalling liability of his being torn away from wife and children, and sold like a beast in the market.[83] In a graphic passage, Douglass asked Auld how he would feel if Douglass had come to take away his daughter Amanda as a slave, treating her the way he and members of his family had been treated by Auld.[81][82] Yet in his conclusion Douglass shows his focus and benevolence, stating that he has "no malice towards him personally," and asserts that, "there is no roof under which you would be more safe than mine, and there is nothing in my house which you might need for comfort, which I would not readily grant. Indeed, I should esteem it a privilege, to set you an example as to how mankind ought to treat each other."[83] Women's rights In 1848, Douglass was the only African American to attend the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, in upstate New York.[84][85] Elizabeth Cady Stanton asked the assembly to pass a resolution asking for women's suffrage.[86] Many of those present opposed the idea, including influential Quakers James and Lucretia Mott.[87] Douglass stood and spoke eloquently in favor of women's suffrage; he said that he could not accept the right to vote as a black man if women could not also claim that right. He suggested that the world would be a better place if women were involved in the political sphere. In this denial of the right to participate in government, not merely the degradation of woman and the perpetuation of a great injustice happens, but the maiming and repudiation of one-half of the moral and intellectual power of the government of the world.[87] After Douglass's powerful words, the attendees passed the resolution.[87][88] In the wake of the Seneca Falls Convention, Douglass used an editorial in The North Star to press the case for women's rights. He recalled the "marked ability and dignity" of the proceedings, and briefly conveyed several arguments of the convention and feminist thought at the time. On the first count, Douglass acknowledged the "decorum" of the participants in the face of disagreement. In the remainder, he discussed the primary document that emerged from the conference, a Declaration of Sentiments, and the "infant" feminist cause. Strikingly, he expressed the belief that "[a] discussion of the rights of animals would be regarded with far more complacency...than would be a discussion of the rights of women," and Douglass noted the link between abolitionism and feminism, the overlap between the communities. His opinion as the editor of a prominent newspaper carried weight, and he stated the position of the North Star explicitly: "We hold woman to be justly entitled to all we claim for man." This letter, written a week after the convention, reaffirmed the first part of the paper's slogan, "right is of no sex." After the Civil War, when the 15th Amendment giving Blacks the right to vote was being debated, Douglass split with the Stanton-led faction of the women's rights movement. Douglass supported the amendment, which would grant suffrage to black men. Stanton opposed the 15th Amendment because it limited the expansion of suffrage to black men; she predicted its passage would delay for decades the cause for women's right to vote. Stanton argued that American women and black men should band together to fight for universal suffrage, and opposed any bill that split the issues.[89] Douglass and Stanton both knew that there was not yet enough male support for women's right to vote, but that an amendment giving black men the vote could pass in the late 1860s. Stanton wanted to attach women's suffrage to that of black men so that her cause would be carried to success.[90] Douglass thought such a strategy was too risky, that there was barely enough support for black men's suffrage. He feared that linking the cause of women's suffrage to that of black men would result in failure for both. Douglass argued that white women, already empowered by their social connections to fathers, husbands, and brothers, at least vicariously had the vote. African-American women, he believed, would have the same degree of empowerment as white women once African-American men had the vote.[90] Douglass assured the American women that at no time had he ever argued against women's right to vote.[91] Ideological refinement Frederick Douglass in 1856, around 38 years of age Meanwhile, in 1851, Douglass merged the North Star with Gerrit Smith's Liberty Party Paper to form Frederick Douglass' Paper, which was published until 1860. On July 5, 1852, Douglass delivered an address to the ladies of the Rochester Anti-Slavery Sewing Society. This speech eventually became known as "What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?"; one biographer called it "perhaps the greatest antislavery oration ever given."[92] In 1853, he was a prominent attendee of the radical abolitionist National African American Convention in Rochester. Douglass's was one of five names attached to the address of the convention to the people of the United States published under the title, The Claims of Our Common Cause, along with Amos Noë Freeman, James Monroe Whitfield, Henry O. Wagoner, and George Boyer Vashon.[93] Like many abolitionists, Douglass believed that education would be crucial for African Americans to improve their lives; he was an early advocate for school desegregation. In the 1850s, Douglass observed that New York's facilities and instruction for African-American children were vastly inferior to those for whites. Douglass called for court action to open all schools to all children. He said that full inclusion within the educational system was a more pressing need for African Americans than political issues such as suffrage. John Brown Douglass argued against John Brown's plan to attack the arsenal at Harpers Ferry, painting by Jacob Lawrence See also: Shields Green On March 12, 1859, Douglass met with radical abolitionists John Brown, George DeBaptiste, and others at William Webb's house in Detroit to discuss emancipation.[94] Douglass met Brown again when Brown visited his home two months before leading the raid on Harpers Ferry. Brown penned his Provisional Constitution during his two-week stay with Douglass. Also staying with Douglass for over a year was Shields Green, a fugitive slave that Douglass was helping, as he often did. The secret meeting in the Chambersburg stone quarry Shortly before the raid, Douglass, taking Green with him, travelled from Rochester, via New York City, to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, John Brown's communications headquarters. He was recognized there by Blacks, who asked him for a lecture. Douglass agreed, although he said his only topic was slavery. John Brown, incognito, sat in the audience; Shields Green joined him on the stage. A white reporter, referring to "Nigger Democracy", called it a "flaming address" by "the notorious Negro Orator".[95] There, in an abandoned stone quarry for secrecy, Douglass and Green met with Brown and John Henri Kagi, to discuss the raid. After discussions lasting, as Douglass put it, "a day and a night", he disappointed Brown by declining to join him, considering the mission suicidal. To Douglass's surprise, Green went with Brown instead of returning to Rochester with Douglass. Anne Brown said that Green told her that Douglass promised to pay him on his return, but David Blight called this "much more ex post facto bitterness than reality.[96]: 172–174  Almost all that is known about this incident comes from Douglass. It is clear that it was of immense importance to him, both as a turning point in his life—not accompanying John Brown—and its importance in his public image. The meeting was not revealed by Douglass for 20 years. He first disclosed it in his speech on John Brown at Storer College in 1881, trying unsuccessfully to raise money to support a John Brown professorship at Storer, to be held by a Black man. He again referred to it stunningly in his last Autobiography. After the raid, which took place between October 16 and 18, 1859, Douglass was accused both of supporting Brown and of not supporting him enough.[97] He was nearly arrested on a Virginia warrant,[98][99][100] and fled for a brief time to Canada before proceeding onward to England on a previously-planned lecture tour, arriving near the end of November.[101] During his lecture tour of Great Britain, on March 26, 1860, Douglass delivered a speech before the Scottish Anti-Slavery Society in Glasgow, "The Constitution of the United States: Is It Pro-Slavery or Antislavery?", outlining his views on the American Constitution.[102] That month, on the 13th, Douglass's youngest daughter Annie died in Rochester, New York, just days shy of her 11th birthday. Douglass sailed back from England the following month, traveling through Canada to avoid detection. Douglass's Storer College address (1881) Years later, in 1881, Douglass shared a stage at Storer College in Harpers Ferry with Andrew Hunter, the prosecutor who secured Brown's conviction and execution. Hunter congratulated Douglass.[103] Photography Douglass considered photography very important in ending slavery and racism, and believed that the camera would not lie, even in the hands of a racist white, as photographs were an excellent counter to the many racist caricatures, particularly in blackface minstrelsy. He was the most photographed American of the 19th century, consciously using photography to advance his political views.[104][105] He never smiled, specifically so as not to play into the racist caricature of a happy slave. He tended to look directly into the camera to confront the viewer, with a stern look.[106][107] Religious views As a child, Douglass was exposed to a number of religious sermons, and in his youth, he sometimes heard Sophia Auld reading the Bible. In time, he became interested in literacy; he began reading and copying bible verses, and he eventually converted to Christianity.[108][109] He described this approach in his last biography, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: I was not more than thirteen years old, when in my loneliness and destitution I longed for some one to whom I could go, as to a father and protector. The preaching of a white Methodist minister, named Hanson, was the means of causing me to feel that in God I had such a friend. He thought that all men, great and small, bond and free, were sinners in the sight of God: that they were by nature rebels against His government; and that they must repent of their sins, and be reconciled to God through Christ. I cannot say that I had a very distinct notion of what was required of me, but one thing I did know well: I was wretched and had no means of making myself otherwise. I consulted a good old colored man named Charles Lawson, and in tones of holy affection he told me to pray, and to "cast all my care upon God." This I sought to do; and though for weeks I was a poor, broken-hearted mourner, traveling through doubts and fears, I finally found my burden lightened, and my heart relieved. I loved all mankind, slaveholders not excepted, though I abhorred slavery more than ever. I saw the world in a new light, and my great concern was to have everybody converted. My desire to learn increased, and especially, did I want a thorough acquaintance with the contents of the Bible.[110] Douglass was mentored by Rev. Charles Lawson, and, early in his activism, he often included biblical allusions and religious metaphors in his speeches. Although a believer, he strongly criticized religious hypocrisy[111] and accused slaveholders of wickedness, lack of morality, and failure to follow the Golden Rule. In this sense, Douglass distinguished between the "Christianity of Christ" and the "Christianity of America" and considered religious slaveholders and clergymen who defended slavery as the most brutal, sinful, and cynical of all who represented "wolves in sheep's clothing".[112][113] Notably, in a famous oration given in the Corinthian Hall of Rochester,[114] he sharply criticized the attitude of religious people who kept silent about slavery, and held that religious ministers committed a blasphemy when they taught it as sanctioned by religion. He considered that a law passed to support slavery was "one of the grossest infringements of Christian Liberty" and said that pro-slavery clergymen within the American Church "stripped the love of God of its beauty, and leave the throne of religion a huge, horrible, repulsive form", and "an abomination in the sight of God".[111] Of ministers like John Chase Lord, Leonard Elijah Lathrop, Ichabod Spencer, and Orville Dewey, he said that they taught, against the Scriptures, that "we ought to obey man's law before the law of God". He further asserted, "in speaking of the American church, however, let it be distinctly understood that I mean the great mass of the religious organizations of our land. There are exceptions, and I thank God that there are. Noble men may be found, scattered all over these Northern States ... Henry Ward Beecher of Brooklyn, Samuel J. May of Syracuse, and my esteemed friend [Robert R. Raymonde]".[111] He maintained that "upon these men lies the duty to inspire our ranks with high religious faith and zeal, and to cheer us on in the great mission of the slave's redemption from his chains". In addition, he called religious people to embrace abolitionism, stating, "let the religious press, the pulpit, the Sunday school, the conference meeting, the great ecclesiastical, missionary, Bible and tract associations of the land array their immense powers against slavery and slave-holding; and the whole system of crime and blood would be scattered to the winds."[111] During his visits to the United Kingdom between 1846 and 1848, Douglass asked British Christians never to support American churches that permitted slavery,[115] and he expressed his happiness to know that a group of ministers in Belfast had refused to admit slaveholders as members of the Church. On his return to the United States, Douglass founded the North Star, a weekly publication with the motto "Right is of no sex, Truth is of no color, God is the Father of us all, and we are all Brethren." Douglass later wrote a letter to his former slaveholder, in which he denounced him for leaving Douglass's family illiterate: Your wickedness and cruelty committed in this respect on your fellow creatures, are greater than all the stripes you have laid upon my back or theirs. It is an outrage upon the soul, a war upon the immortal spirit, and one for which you must give account at the bar of our common Father and Creator. — Letter to His Old Master. To my Old Master Thomas Auld.[60] Sometimes considered a precursor of a non-denominational liberation theology,[116][117] Douglass was a deeply spiritual man, as his home continues to show. The fireplace mantle features busts of two of his favorite philosophers, David Friedrich Strauss, author of "The Life of Jesus", and Ludwig Feuerbach, author of "The Essence of Christianity"[dubious – discuss]. In addition to several Bibles and books about various religions in the library, images of angels and Jesus are displayed, as well as interior and exterior photographs of Washington's Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church.[52] Throughout his life, Douglass had linked that individual experience with social reform, and like other Christian abolitionists, he followed practices such as abstaining from tobacco, alcohol and other substances that he believed corrupted body and soul.[118] Civil War years Before the Civil War By the time of the Civil War, Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his orations on the condition of the black race and on other issues such as women's rights. His eloquence gathered crowds at every location. His reception by leaders in England and Ireland added to his stature. Fight for emancipation and suffrage A 1863 Broadside listing Douglass as a speaker calling men of color to arms Douglass and the abolitionists argued that because the aim of the Civil War was to end slavery, African Americans should be allowed to engage in the fight for their freedom. Douglass publicized this view in his newspapers and several speeches. In August 1861 he published an account of the First Battle of Bull Run, noting that some blacks were already in the Confederate ranks. A few weeks later, Douglass brought the subject up again, quoting a witness to the battle who said they saw black Confederates "with muskets on their shoulders and bullets in their pockets."[119] Douglass conferred with President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers,[120] and with President Andrew Johnson on the subject of black suffrage.[121] President Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which took effect on January 1, 1863, declared the freedom of all slaves in Confederate-held territory. (Slaves in Union-held areas were not covered by this war-measures act; slaves in Union-held areas and Northern states were freed with the adoption of the 13th Amendment on December 6, 1865.) Douglass described the spirit of those awaiting the proclamation: "We were waiting and listening as for a bolt from the sky ... we were watching ... by the dim light of the stars for the dawn of a new day ... we were longing for the answer to the agonizing prayers of centuries."[122] During the U.S. Presidential Election of 1864, Douglass supported John C. Frémont, who was the candidate of the abolitionist Radical Democracy Party. Douglass was disappointed that President Lincoln did not publicly endorse suffrage for black freedmen. Douglass believed that since African-American men were fighting for the Union in the American Civil War, they deserved the right to vote.[123] With the North no longer obliged to return slaves to their owners in the South, Douglass fought for equality for his people. He made plans with Lincoln to move liberated slaves out of the South. During the war, Douglass also helped the Union cause by serving as a recruiter for the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment. His eldest son, Charles Douglass, joined the 54th Massachusetts Regiment, but was ill for much of his service.[51] Lewis Douglass fought at the Battle of Fort Wagner.[124] Another son, Frederick Douglass Jr., also served as a recruiter. After Lincoln's death The post-war (1865) ratification of the 13th Amendment outlawed slavery. The 14th Amendment provided for citizenship and equal protection under the law. The 15th Amendment protected all citizens from being discriminated against in voting because of race.[89] On April 14, 1876, Douglass delivered the keynote speech at the unveiling of the Emancipation Memorial in Washington's Lincoln Park. He spoke frankly about Lincoln, noting what he perceived as both positive and negative attributes of the late President. Calling Lincoln "the white man's president", Douglass criticized Lincoln's tardiness in joining the cause of emancipation, noting that Lincoln initially opposed the expansion of slavery but did not support its elimination. But Douglass also asked, "Can any colored man, or any white man friendly to the freedom of all men, ever forget the night which followed the first day of January 1863, when the world was to see if Abraham Lincoln would prove to be as good as his word?"[125] He also said: "Though Mr. Lincoln shared the prejudices of his white fellow-countrymen against the Negro, it is hardly necessary to say that in his heart of hearts he loathed and hated slavery ..." The crowd, roused by his speech, gave Douglass a standing ovation. Lincoln's widow Mary Lincoln supposedly gave Lincoln's favorite walking-stick to Douglass in appreciation. That walking-stick still rests in his final residence, "Cedar Hill", now preserved as the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site. delivering the speech, Frederick Douglass immediately wrote to the National Republican newspaper in Washington (which published five days later, April 19), criticizing the statue's design and suggesting the park could be improved by more dignified monuments of free Black people. "The negro here, though rising, is still on his knees and nude," Douglass wrote. "What I want to see before I die is a monument representing the negro, not couchant on his knees like a four-footed animal, but erect on his feet like a man."[126] era Frederick Douglass in 1876, around 58 years of age the Civil War, Douglass continued to work for equality for African-Americans and women. Due to his prominence and activism during the war, Douglass received several political appointments. He served as president of the Reconstruction-era Freedman's Savings Bank.[127] white insurgents had quickly arisen in the South after the war, organizing first as secret vigilante groups, including the Ku Klux Klan. Armed insurgency took different forms. Powerful paramilitary groups included the White League and the Red Shirts, both active during the 1870s in the Deep South. They operated as "the military arm of the Democratic Party", turning out Republican officeholders and disrupting elections.[128] Starting 10 years after the war, Democrats regained political power in every state of the former Confederacy and began to reassert white supremacy. They enforced this by a combination of violence, late 19th-century laws imposing segregation and a concerted effort to disfranchise African Americans. New labor and criminal laws also limited their freedom.[129] combat these efforts, Douglass supported the presidential campaign of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868. In 1870, Douglass started his last newspaper, the New National Era, attempting to hold his country to its commitment to equality.[51] President Grant sent a Congressionally sponsored commission, accompanied by Douglass, on a mission to the West Indies to investigate if the annexation of Santo Domingo would be good for the United States. Grant believed annexation would help relieve the violent situation in the South by allowing African Americans their own state. Douglass and the commission favored annexation, however, Congress remained opposed to annexation. Douglass criticized Senator Charles Sumner, who opposed annexation, stating if Sumner continued to oppose annexation he would "regard him as the worst foe the colored race has on this continent."[130] Douglass's former residence in the U Street Corridor of Washington, D.C. He built 2000–2004 17th Street, NW, in 1875. the midterm elections, Grant signed the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (also known as the Klan Act), and the second and third Enforcement Acts. Grant used their provisions vigorously, suspending habeas corpus in South Carolina and sending troops there and into other states. Under his leadership over 5,000 arrests were made. Grant's vigor in disrupting the Klan made him unpopular among many whites, but earned praise from Douglass. A Douglass associate wrote that African Americans "will ever cherish a grateful remembrance of [Grant's] name, fame and great services." 1872, Douglass became the first African American nominated for Vice President of the United States, as Victoria Woodhull's running mate on the Equal Rights Party ticket. He was nominated without his knowledge. Douglass neither campaigned for the ticket nor acknowledged that he had been nominated.[9] In that year, he was presidential elector at large for the State of New York, and took that state's votes to Washington, D.C.[131] in early June of that year, Douglass's third Rochester home, on South Avenue, burned down; arson was suspected.[132][133] There was extensive damage to the house, its furnishings, and the grounds; in addition, sixteen volumes of the North Star and Frederick Douglass' Paper were lost.[134] Douglass then moved to Washington, D.C. the Reconstruction era, Douglass continued speaking, emphasizing the importance of work, voting rights and actual exercise of suffrage. His speeches for the twenty-five years following the war emphasized work to counter the racism that was then prevalent in In a November 15, 1867, speech he said "A man's rights rest in three boxes. The ballot box, jury box and the cartridge box. Let no man be kept from the ballot box because of his color. Let no woman be kept from the ballot box because of her sex."[136][137] Douglass spoke at many colleges around the country, including Bates College in Lewiston, Maine, in 1873. 1881, Douglass delivered at Storer College, in Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, a speech praising John Brown and revealing unknown information about their relationship, including their meeting in an abandoned stone quarry near Chambersburg shortly before the raid. [138] life Frederick Douglass after 1884 with his second wife Helen Pitts Douglass (sitting). The woman standing is her sister Eva Pitts. Further information: Douglass family and Anna Murray had five children: Rosetta Douglass, Lewis Henry Douglass, Frederick Douglass Jr., Charles Remond Douglass, and Annie Douglass (died at the age of ten). Charles and Rosetta helped produce his newspapers. Douglass remained a loyal supporter of her husband's public work. His relationships with Julia Griffiths and Ottilie Assing, two women with whom he was professionally involved, caused recurring speculation and scandals.[139] Assing was a journalist recently immigrated from Germany, who first visited Douglass in 1856 seeking permission to translate My Bondage and My Freedom into German. Until 1872, she often stayed at his house "for several months at a time" as his "intellectual and emotional companion."[77]: 387, 290–291  held Anna Douglass "in utter contempt" and was vainly hoping that Douglass would separate from his wife. Douglass biographer David W. Blight concludes that Assing and Douglass "were probably lovers."[77]: 387, 290–291  Though Douglass and Assing are widely believed to have had an intimate relationship, the surviving correspondence contains no proof of such a relationship.[77]: 521–522, 529, 570, 572–574  Anna died in 1882, in 1884 Douglass married again, to Helen Pitts, a white suffragist and abolitionist from Honeoye, New York. Pitts was the daughter of Gideon Pitts Jr., an abolitionist colleague and friend of Douglass's. graduate of Mount Holyoke College (then called Mount Holyoke Female Seminary), Pitts worked on a radical feminist publication named Alpha while living in Washington, D.C. She later worked as Douglass's secretary.[140] who had depression and was diagnosed with incurable breast cancer, committed suicide in France in 1884 after hearing of the marriage.[141] Upon her death, Assing bequeathed Douglass $13,000, albums, and his choice of books from her library.[142] marriage of Douglass and Pitts provoked a storm of controversy, since Pitts was both white and nearly 20 years younger. Her family stopped speaking to her; his children considered the marriage a repudiation of their mother. feminist Elizabeth Cady Stanton congratulated the couple.[143] Douglass responded to the criticisms by saying that his first marriage had been to someone the color of his mother, and his second to someone the color of his father.[144] years in Washington, D.C. Freedman's Savings Bank went bankrupt on June 29, 1874, just a few months after Douglass became its president in late March.[145] During that same economic crisis, his final newspaper, The New National Era, failed in September.[146] Republican Rutherford B. Hayes was elected president, he named Douglass as United States Marshal for the District of Columbia, the first person of color to be so named. The Senate voted to confirm him on March 17, 1877.[147] Douglass accepted the appoint, which helped assure his family's financial security.[51] his tenure, Douglass was urged by his supporters to resign from his commission, since he was never asked to introduce visiting foreign dignitaries to the President, which is one of the usual duties of that post. However, Douglass believed that no covert racism was implied by the omission, and stated that he was always warmly welcomed in presidential circles.[148][149] Cedar Hill, Douglass's house in the Anacostia neighborhood of Washington, D.C., is preserved as a National Historic Site. 1877, Douglass visited his former slavemaster Thomas Auld on his deathbed, and the two men reconciled. Douglass had met Auld's daughter, Amanda Auld Sears, some years prior. She had requested the meeting and had subsequently attended and cheered one of Douglass's speeches. Her father complimented her for reaching out to Douglass. The visit also appears to have brought closure to Douglass, although some criticized his effort.[81] same year, Douglass bought the house that was to be the family's final home in Washington, D.C., on a hill above the Anacostia River. He and Anna named it Cedar Hill (also spelled CedarHill). They expanded the house from 14 to 21 rooms, and included a china closet. One year later, Douglass purchased adjoining lots and expanded the property to 15 acres (61,000 m2). The home is now preserved as the Frederick Douglass National Historic Site. 1881, Douglass published the final edition of his autobiography, The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass. That year he was appointed as Recorder of Deeds for the District of Columbia. His wife Anna Murray Douglass died in 1882, leaving the widower devastated. After a period of mourning, Douglass found new meaning from working with activist Ida B. Wells. He remarried in 1884, as mentioned above. also continued his speaking engagements and travel, both in the United States and abroad. With new wife Helen, Douglass traveled to England, Ireland, France, Italy, Egypt and Greece from 1886 to 1887. He became known for advocating Irish Home Rule and supported Charles Stewart Parnell in Ireland. addition to his travel abroad during those years, he lectured in small towns in the United States. On December 28, 1885, the aging orator spoke to the literary society in Rising Sun, a town in northeastern Maryland below the Mason–Dixon line.[150] The program, "The Self-Made Man," attracted a large audience including students from Lincoln University in Chester County, PA, the Oxford Press reported. "Mr. Douglass is growing old and has lost much of his fire and vigor of mind as well as body, but he is still able to interest an audience. He is a remarkable man and is a bright example of the capability of the colored race, even under the blighting influence of slavery, from which he emerged and became one of the distinguished citizens of the country," the Chester County PA newspaper remarked.[151] The gravestone of Frederick Douglass located in Mount Hope Cemetery, Rochester the 1888 Republican National Convention, Douglass became the first African American to receive a vote for President of the United States in a major party's roll call vote.[152][153][154] That year, Douglass spoke at Claflin College, a historically black college in Orangeburg, South Carolina, and the state's oldest such institution.[155] African Americans, called Exodusters, escaped the Klan and racially discriminatory laws in the South by moving to Kansas, where some formed all-black towns to have a greater level of freedom and autonomy. Douglass did not favor this, nor the Back-to-Africa movement. He thought the latter resembled the American Colonization Society which he had opposed in his youth. In 1892, at an Indianapolis conference convened by Bishop Henry McNeal Turner, Douglass spoke out against the separatist movements, urging blacks to stick it out.[51] He made similar speeches as early as 1879, and was criticized both by fellow leaders and some audiences, who even booed him for this position.[156] Speaking in Baltimore in 1894, Douglass said, "I hope and trust all will come out right in the end, but the immediate future looks dark and troubled. I cannot shut my eyes to the ugly facts before me."[157] Harrison appointed Douglass as the United States's minister resident and consul-general to the Republic of Haiti and Chargé d'affaires for Santo Domingo in 1889.[158] but Douglass resigned the commission in July 1891 when it became apparent that the American President was intent upon gaining permanent access to Haitian territory regardless of that country's desires.[159] In 1892, Haiti made Douglass a co-commissioner of its pavilion at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.[160] 1892, Douglass constructed rental housing for blacks, now known as Douglass Place, in the Fells Point area of Baltimore. The complex still exists, and in 2003 was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[161][162] Death February 20, 1895, Douglass attended a meeting of the National Council of Women in Washington, D.C. During that meeting, he was brought to the platform and received a standing ovation. Shortly after he returned home, Douglass died of a massive heart attack.[163] He was 77. funeral was held at the Metropolitan African Methodist Episcopal Church. Thousands of people passed by his coffin to show their respect. Although Douglass had attended several churches in the nation's capital, he had a pew here and had donated two standing candelabras when this church had moved to a new building in 1886. He also gave many lectures there, including his last major speech, "The Lesson of the Hour."[52] coffin was transported to Rochester, New York, where he had lived for 25 years, longer than anywhere else in his life. He was buried next to Anna in the Douglass family plot of Mount Hope Cemetery. Helen was also buried there in 1903.[164] JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911):;

US, 1838-1895, FREDERICK DOUGLASS, Priest, abolitionist, wmen's suffragist, editor, orator, author, reformer
US, 1838-1895, FREDERICK DOUGLASS, Anacostia (neighborhood), Washington DC, Priest, abolitionist, women's suffragist, editor, orator, author, statesman and reformer, slave till 1838, 3 vautobiographies, educaton the key, conferred w Lincoln, women's sufferage Convention 1848, England&Ireland, important political positions after War; Anacostia (neighborhood of Washington, DC); FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 18; Douglass (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, circa 1818 – February 20, 1895) an American abolitionist, women's suffragist, editor, orator, author, statesman and reformer. Called "The Sage of Anacostia" and "The Lion of Anacostia", Douglass is one of the most prominent figures in African American and United States history. was a firm believer in the equality of all people, whether black, female, Native American, or recent immigrant. He was fond of saying, "I would unite with anybody to do right and with nobody to do wrong." Douglass was born a slave in Talbot County, Maryland. He was separated from his mother, Harriet Bailey, when he was still an infant. She died when Douglass was about seven and Douglass lived with his maternal grandmother Betty Bailey. Douglass was about twelve, his owner's wife started teaching him the alphabet, which was against the law. Douglass succeeded in learning to read from white children in the neighborhood and by observing the writings of men with whom he worked. As Douglass learned and began to read newspapers, political materials, and books of every description, he was exposed to a new realm of thought that led him to question and then condemn the institution of slavery. was hired out to a number of owners before finally escaping north to freedom in September 1838. Douglass continued traveling up to Massachusetts. There he joined various organizations in New Bedford, including a black church, and regularly attended abolitionist meetings. best-known work is his first autobiography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, published in 1845. The book received generally positive reviews and it became an immediate bestseller. Douglass published three versions of his autobiography during his lifetime (and revised the third of these), each time expanding on the previous one. The 1845 Narrative, which was his biggest seller, was followed by My Bondage and My Freedom in 1855. In 1881, after the Civil War, Douglass published Life and Times of Frederick Douglass, which he revised in 1892. produced some regular abolitionist newspapers, including The North Star. Its motto was "Right is of no Sex — Truth is of no Color — God is the Father of us all, and we are all brethren." believed that education was key for African Americans to improve their lives. For this reason, he was an early advocate for desegregation of schools. conferred with President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers, and with President Andrew Johnson on the subject of black suffrage. His early collaborators were the white abolitionists William Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips. 1848, Douglass attended the first women's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention, as the only African American. Elizabeth Cady Stanton asked the assembly to pass a resolution asking for women's suffrage. Many of those present opposed the idea, but Douglass stood and spoke eloquently in favor; he said that he could not accept the right to vote himself as a black man if woman could not also claim that right. His powerful words rang true with enough attendees that the resolution passed. the time of the Civil War, Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his orations on the condition of the black race and on other issues such as women's rights. His eloquence gathered crowds at every location. reception by leaders in England and Ireland added to his stature. the Civil War, Douglass was appointed to several important political positions. He served as President of the Reconstruction-era Freedman's Savings Bank; as marshal of the District of Columbia; as minister-resident and consul-general to the Republic of Haiti (1889–1891); and as chargé d'affaires for the Dominican Republic. was an ordained minister of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. — more from Wikipedia

US, 1839-1898, ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR, goes to Liberia, for black christian republic
US, 1839-1898, ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR, Diocese of Massachusets (Boston Common, Charles River 11), ordained Diocese MA, but excluded priests' meeting, goes to Cambridge, goes to Liberia, for black christian republic, returned to US, opposed separate black missionary district; Diocese of Massachusets is in the Cathedral Church of Saint Paul, Boston ; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898); Crummell was born in New York City in 1819, and wished to study for the priesthood, but received many rebuffs because he was black. was ordained in the Diocese of Massachusets in 1844, when he was 25 years old, was excluded from a meeting of priests of the diocese, and decided to go to England. graduating from Cambridge, he went to Liberia, an African country founded under American auspices for the repatriation of freed slaves. hoped to see established in Liberia a black Christian republic, combining the best of European and African culture, and led by a Western-educated black bishop. visited the United States and urged blacks to join him in Liberia and and swell the ranks of the church there. work in Liberia ran into opposition and indifference, and he returned to the United States, he undertook the founding and strengthening of urban black congregations that would provide worship, education, and social services for their communities. some bishops proposed a separate missionary district for black parishes, he organized a group, now known as the Union of Black Episcopalians, to fight the proposal. by James Kiefer [More information can be found on a site devoted to Black history; also available is a profile on him, from WEB DuBois' The Souls of Black Folk.]

US, 1840-1902, ENMEGAHBOWH, Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough), first Native American Episcopal priest
US, 1840-1902, ENMEGAHBOWH, Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough), first Native American Episcopal priest, Dakota War 1862, warned Ft Ripley, prevented Gull Lake band to join War; Rice Lake, Ontario (near Peterborough); ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902), Commemorated June 12; (c. 1820 – June 12, 1902; from Enami'egaabaw, meaning "He that prays [for his people while] standing"; also known as John Johnson) the first Native American to be ordained a priest in the Episcopal Church. around 1820, Enmegahbowh (pronounced En-meh-GAH-boe), was the only child of the chief of an Ojibwe Band on Rice Lake near Peterborough, Canada. He was raised in a Christian village near Petersburg which was affiliated with the Methodists. July 4, 1841 Enmegahbowh married Biwabikogeshigequay (a/k/a Iron Sky Woman and baptized Charlotte), niece of Hole-in-the-Day. met the Rev. Ezekiel Gilbert Gear, chaplain at Fort Snelling at the confluence of the Mississippi and Minnesota Rivers, and became an Episcopalian. eventually introduced Enmegahbowh to the Rev. James Lloyd Breck, a missionary who had arrived in Minnesota in 1851, and who baptised Enmegahbowh. Jackson Kemper ordained the youth a deacon in 1859, and Enmegahbowh went to Crow Wing, Minnesota to assist in founding St. Columba Mission. the Dakota War of 1862, which began as treaty payments were due for distribution to the starving Sioux at Fort Ridgely, the Gull Lake Band of Mississippi Chippewa rose to attack near-by Fort Ripley. prevented other Ojibwa bands from joining the Gull Lake Band, for which the rebels imprisoned him. Enmegahbowh escaped and traveled thirty miles at night to warn Fort Ripley. This discouraged the Gull Lake Band from attacking the fort. 1867 Bishop Whipple ordained Enmegahbowh a priest. In 1869 he encouraged Chief White Cloud's mission to establish peace between the Ojibwe and the Sioux in 1869. died at the White Earth Indian Reservation in northern Minnesota on June 12, 1902 at the age of 95, and is buried in St. Columba's churchyard. more at Wikipedia

US, 1840-1915, Fanny Crosby, Brewster, NY, American lyricist best known for her (8,000) Protestant Christian hymns
US, 1840-1915, Fanny Crosby, Brewster, NY (Croton River Source, Hudson River 17), American lyricist best known for her (8,000) Protestant Christian hymns; Brewster, NY ; Fanny Crosby early life and education; Jane Crosby was born on March 24, 1820, in the village of Brewster, about 50 miles (80 km) north of New York City.[10][11] was the only child of John Crosby and his second wife Mercy Crosby, both of whom were relatives of Revolutionary War spy Enoch Crosby. was a widower who had a daughter from his first marriage.[12] According to C. Bernard Ruffin, John and Mercy were possibly first cousins; however, "by the time Fanny Crosby came to write her memoirs [in 1906], the fact that her mother and father were related... had become a source of embarrassment, and she maintained that she did not know anything about his lineage".[13] (l to r) Mercy, Julia, and Caroline Morris and Fanny Crosby was proud of her Puritan heritage.[14] She traced her ancestry from Anna Brigham and Simon Crosby who arrived in Boston in 1635[15][16] (and were among the founders of Harvard College);[17] their descendants married into Mayflower families,[14] making Crosby a descendant of Elder William Brewster, Edward Winslow, and Thomas Prence, and a member of the exclusive Daughters of the Mayflower.[18] was also a member of the Daughters of the American Revolution in Bridgeport, Connecticut,[19] writing the verses of the state song of the Connecticut branch.[20] Through Simon Crosby, Fanny was also a relative of Presbyterian minister Howard Crosby and his neoabolitionist son Ernest Howard Crosby,[21] as well as singers Bing and Bob Crosby.[22] six weeks old, Crosby caught a cold and developed inflammation of the eyes. Mustard poultices were applied to treat the discharges.[23] According to Crosby, this procedure damaged her optic nerves and blinded her, but modern physicians think that her blindness was more likely congenital and, given her age, may simply not have been noticed by her parents.[24][25] father died in November 1820 when Fanny was only six months old, so she was raised by her mother and maternal grandmother Eunice Paddock Crosby (born about 1778; died about 1831).[26] These women grounded her in Christian principles, helping her memorize long passages from the Bible, and she became an active member of the John Street Methodist Episcopal Church in Manhattan. Peach Pond Meeting House, North Salem, New York Crosby was three, the family moved to North Salem, New York where Eunice had been raised.[27] In April 1825, she was examined by the surgeon Valentine Mott, who concluded that her condition was inoperable and that her blindness was permanent.[28] age eight, Crosby wrote her first poem which described her condition.[29] She later stated: "It seemed intended by the blessed providence of God that I should be blind all my life, and I thank him for the dispensation. If perfect earthly sight were offered me tomorrow I would not accept it. I might not have sung hymns to the praise of God if I had been distracted by the beautiful and interesting things about me."[30] She also once said, "when I get to heaven, the first face that shall ever gladden my sight will be that of my Savior".[31] According to biographer Annie Willis, "had it not been for her affliction she might not have so good an education or have so great an influence, and certainly not so fine a memory".[32] 1828, Mercy and Fanny moved to the home of a Mrs. Hawley in Ridgefield, Connecticut.[33] While residing in Ridgefield, they attended the Presbyterian church on the village green.[34] Historian Edith L. Blumhofer described the Crosby home environment as sustained by "an abiding Christian faith".[35] Crosby memorized five chapters of the Bible each week from age 10, with the encouragement of her grandmother and later Mrs. Hawley; by age 15, she had memorized the four gospels, the Pentateuch,[32] the Book of Proverbs, the Song of Solomon, and many of the Psalms.[36] From 1832, a music teacher came to Ridgefield twice a week to give singing lessons to her and some of the other children.[37] Around the same time, she attended her first Methodist church services at the Methodist Episcopal Church, and she was delighted by their hymns.[38] enrolled at the New York Institution for the Blind (NYIB) in 1835, just before her 15th birthday.[39] She remained there for eight years as a student, and another two years as a graduate pupil,[40] during which time she learned to play the piano, organ, harp, and guitar, and became a good soprano singer. While she was studying at NYIB in 1838, her mother Mercy remarried and the couple had three children together.[41] Mercy's husband abandoned her in 1844.[42] FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; Jane Crosby (March 24 1820 – February 12 1915) usually known as Fanny Crosby, was an American lyricist best known for her Protestant Christian hymns. lifelong Methodist, she was one of the most prolific hymnists in history, writing over 8,000 despite being blind since infancy. Also known for her preaching and speaking, during her lifetime Fanny Crosby was one of the best known women in the United States. this day, the vast majority of American hymnals contain her work [but not the 1982 Episcopal Church Hymnal]. Some of her best known songs include "Blessed Assurance", "Jesus Is Tenderly Calling You Home", "Praise Him, Praise Him", and "To God Be the Glory". Because some publishers were hesitant to have so many hymns by one person in their hymnals, Crosby used nearly 100 different pseudonyms during her career. wrote her first hymn in 1863 for the composer William B. Bradbury, a respected musician and publisher. It was called "There's a Cry from Macedonia". Over the years she wrote for Bradbury and for other composers, including Philip Phillips, Hubert P. Main, Robert Lowry, W. H. Doane, Ira D. Sankey, Philip P. Bliss, Mr. W. F. Sherwin, and Phoebe Knapp. was very well known during her time and often met with presidents, generals, and other dignitaries. She played the hymn "Safe in the Arms of Jesus" at President Grant's funeral in 1885. In her later years, she also became a popular public speaker. she died, her tombstone carried the words, "Aunt Fanny" and "Blessed assurance, Jesus is mine. Oh, what a foretaste of glory divine." Selected Works: "All the Way My Savior Leads Me"—bef. 1875, music by Robert Wadsworth Lowry "Blessed Assurance"—1873, music by Phoebe Knapp "The Bright Forever"—1871, music by Hubert P. Main "Close to Thee"—1874, music by Silas J. Vail "Jesus Is Tenderly Calling You Home"—1883, music by George C. Stebbins "I Am Thine, O Lord"—bef. 1875, music by W. Howard Doane "My Savior First of All"—1891, music by John R. Sweney "Near the Cross"—bef. 1869, music by W. Howard Doane "Pass Me Not, O Gentle Saviour"—1868, music by W. Howard Doane "Praise Him, Praise Him"—bef. 1869, music by Chester G. Allen "Redeemed, How I Love to Proclaim It"—bef. 1882, William J. Kirkpatrick "Rescue the Perishing"—1869, music by W. Howard Doane "Safe in the Arms of Jesus"—1878, music by W. Howard Doane "Saviour, More Than Life to Me"—1875, music by W. Howard Doane "Tell Me the Story of Jesus"—bef. 1880, music by John R. Sweney "To God Be the Glory"—1875, music by W. Howard Doane "Draw me Nearer"—1875, words by Fanny Crosby [Words and music for these and some 500 more of her hymns may be found at the Cyberhymnal.] - more at Wikipedia

US, 1841-1845, President, John Tyler, VP, states rights, nationalist, manifest destiny, Texas annexation
US President, 1841-1845, John Tyler ; Tyler (March 29, 1790 - January 18, 1862)[1] was the tenth president of the United States, serving from 1841 to 1845 after briefly holding office as the tenth vice president in 1841; he was elected vice president on the 1840 Whig ticket with President William Henry Harrison. succeeded to the presidency after Harrison's death in April 1841, only a month after the start of the new administration. was a stalwart supporter and advocate of states' rights, and he adopted nationalistic policies as president only when they did not infringe on the powers of the states. unexpected rise to the presidency posed a threat to the presidential ambitions of Henry Clay and other politicians, and left Tyler estranged from both major political parties. was born to a prominent Virginia family. His family, like many prominent white Southern families in the U.S. at the time, were slaveholders. became a national figure at a time of political upheaval. In the 1820s, the nation's only political party was the Democratic-Republican Party, and it split into factions. was initially a Democrat, but he opposed Andrew Jackson during the Nullification Crisis, seeing Jackson's actions as infringing on states' rights, and he criticized Jackson's expansion of executive power during the Bank War. This led Tyler to ally with the Whig Party. served as a Virginia state legislator, governor, U.S. representative, and U.S. senator. He was put on the 1840 presidential ticket to attract states' rights Southerners to a Whig coalition to defeat Martin Van Buren's re-election bid. Harrison died just one month after taking office, and Tyler became the first vice president to succeed to the presidency without election. He served longer than any other president in U.S. history not elected to the office. forestall constitutional uncertainty, Tyler immediately took the oath of office, moved into the White House, and assumed full presidential powers—a precedent that governed future successions and was codified in the Twenty-fifth Amendment. signed into law some of the Whig-controlled Congress's bills, but he was a strict constructionist and vetoed the party's bills to create a national bank and raise the tariff rates. believed that the president should set policy rather than Congress, and he sought to bypass the Whig establishment, led by Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky. of Tyler's Cabinet resigned soon into his term, and the Whigs dubbed him His Accidency and expelled him from the party. was the first president to see his veto of legislation overridden by Congress. He faced a stalemate on domestic policy, although he had several foreign-policy achievements, including the Webster–Ashburton Treaty with Britain and the Treaty of Wanghia with Qing China. Republic of Texas separated from Mexico in 1836. Tyler was a firm believer in manifest destiny and saw its annexation as providing an economic advantage to the United States, so he worked diligently to make it happen. initially sought election to a full term as president, but failed to gain the support of either Whigs or Democrats and withdrew in support of Democrat James K. Polk, who also favored the annexation of Texas. Polk won the election, and when Tyler signed a bill to annex Texas three days before leaving office, Polk completed the process. the American Civil War began in 1861, Tyler sided with the Confederacy and won election to the Confederate House of Representatives shortly before his death. Some scholars have praised Tyler's political resolve, but historians have generally given his presidency a low ranking. Today, he is seldom remembered in comparison to other presidents and maintains only a limited presence in American cultural memory.[2] PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30;

US, 1842-1902, THOMAS GALLAUDET, Hartford, CT, deaf mother, father's school for deaf, GALLAUDET college f deaf, married deaf girl, ordained, deaf congregation
US, 1842-1902, THOMAS GALLAUDET, Hartford, CT, deaf mother, father's school for deaf, GALLAUDET college f deaf, married deaf girl, ordained, deaf congregation; Hartford, Connecticut; Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Gallaudet was born in 1822, in Hartford, Connecticut. mother, Sophia was deaf, and his father, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, was the founder of the West Hartford School for the deaf, which was the principal institution for the education of the deaf in America from 1806 to 1857 (the year of the founding of Gallaudet College in Washington, DC). father had intended to become a priest, but had become an educator of the deaf instead. son also intended to seek ordination, but was persuaded by his father to work for a while first as a teacher of the deaf. did, and so met and married Miss Elizabeth Budd, who was deaf. was ordained in 1851, and the next year established St. Ann's Church in New York, especially for deaf persons, with services primarily in sign language. a result of his work, congregations for the deaf were established in many cities. (Alternatively, some congregations that are mostly hearing will have someone standing near the front and signing the service for the benefit of deaf parishioners.) died 27 August 1902. Photo of Henry Winter Syle (Photo courtesy Episcopal Conference of the Deaf) of Gallaudet's students and parishioners was Henry Winter Syle, deaf from an early age, who had attended Trinity College (Hartford, Conn), St John's (Cambridge, England), and Yale. encouraged him to become a priest, and in 1876 he became the first deaf person to be ordained by the Episcopal Church in the United States. He established a congregation for the deaf in 1888, and died 6 January 1890. HW Syle signature by James Kiefer Henry Winter Syle of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ;

US, 1843, Oregon Trail Folder
Oregon Trail - 1843;

Oregon Trail - Independence, MO to Oregon City, OR

Oregon Trail - Independence, MO to Little Blue River Mouth

Oregon Trail - Little Blue River to Kearny, NB

Oregon Trail - Platte River Section Kearney, NB to North Platte Mouth

Oregon Trail - North Platte River to Laramie, WY

Oregon Trail - Laramie-Casper-Sweetwater Valley-Blacks Fork-Fort Bridger

Oregon Trail - Bear River Section - Fort Bridger, UT to Soda Springs, ID

Oregon Trail - Big Hill Portion - Soda Springs, ID to Fort Hall (Pocatello, ID)

Oregon Trail - Snake River Section

Oregon Trail - Columbia River Section

Oregon Trail Points Folder

Oregon Trail 1 (Independence, Missouri River 23)

Oregon Trail 1b (St. Joseph, Missouri River 22)

Oregon Trail 2 (crossing Mt Oread, Lawarence, KS)

Oregon Trail 3 (Topeka, KS river crossing)

Oregon Trail 4 (Ash Hollow with Windlass Hill, North Platte River 5)
Oregon Trail (Ash Hollow with Windlass Hill);

Oregon Trail (Courthouse and Jail Rocks)
Oregon Trail (Courthouse and Jail Rocks);

Oregon Trail - Scotts Bluff National Monument
Scotts Bluff National Monument;

Oregon Trail (Scottsbluff)
Scotts Bluff National Monument;

Oregon Trail - Chimney Rock, NB
Oregon Trail - Chimney Rock, NB;

Oregon Trail 5 (Fort Laramie, WY)

Oregon Trail - Fort Laramie
Oregon Trail - Fort Laramie;

Oregon Trail 6 - Casper, WY

Oregon Trail - Sweetwater River Mouth (North Palatte River 4, Casper, WY )

Oregon Trail - Sweetwater River Valley 1

Oregon Trail - Independence Rock, Sweetwater River Valley 2

Oregon Trail - Sweetwater River Valley 3

Oregon Trail 7 - South Pass, Sweetwater River Valley 4

Oregon Trail (Fort Bridger)
Oregon Trail (Fort Bridger);

Oregon Trail (Fort Hall)
Oregon Trail (Fort Hall);

Oregon Trail Terminus (Oregon City, Oregon)

US, 1844-1898, CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, Memphis Medical College, Civil War Surgeon and Chaplin
US, 1844-1898, CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, Sewanee, Tennessee, University of the South, from Connecticut, Hugenot, NYU and Bellevue Hospital, Memphis Medical College, Civil War Surgeon and Chaplin; Sewanee: The University of the South ; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16 ; Todd Quintard (1824-1898) was the second bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Tennessee and the first Vice-Chancellor of the University of the South at Sewanee. was born in Connecticut to a Huguenot family, studied medicine at University Medical College, New York University and Bellevue Hospital, and moved to Memphis to teach physiology and pathological anatomy at Memphis Medical College. Under the influence of Bishop James Hervey Otey, Quintard studied for holy orders and entered the priesthood in the 1850s. the American Civil War, he was a chaplain and a surgeon in Tennessee's Confederate army. — from Wikipedia

US, 1845-1849, President, James K. Polk, expansion, Oregon c, Mexican SW, independent treasury, tariff rates
US President, 1845-1849, James K. Polk Knox Polk (November 2, 1795 – June 15, 1849) was the 11th president of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849. He previously was the Speaker of the House of Representatives (1835–1839) and Governor of Tennessee (1839–1841). A protégé of Andrew Jackson, he was a member of the Democratic Party and an advocate of Jacksonian democracy. Polk is chiefly known for extending the territory of the United States through the Mexican–American War; during his presidency, the United States expanded significantly with the annexation of the Republic of Texas, the Oregon Territory, and the Mexican Cession following the American victory in the Mexican–American War. building a successful law practice in Tennessee, Polk was elected to the state legislature in 1823 and then to the United States House of Representatives in 1825, becoming a strong supporter of Andrew Jackson. serving as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he became Speaker of the House in 1835, the only president to have been speaker. left Congress to run for governor of Tennessee; he won in 1839 but lost in 1841 and 1843. was a dark horse candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in 1844; he entered his party's convention as a potential nominee for vice president but emerged as a compromise to head the ticket when no presidential candidate could secure the necessary two-thirds majority. the general election, Polk defeated Henry Clay of the rival Whig Party. have praised Polk for having met during his four-year term every major domestic and foreign policy goal he had set. After a negotiation fraught with the risk of war, he reached a settlement with Great Britain over the disputed Oregon Country, the territory, for the most part, being divided along the 49th parallel. He provoked a war with Mexico in an attempt to expand the nation and succeeded in doing so, as it resulted in Mexico's cession of nearly all the American Southwest. He secured a substantial reduction of tariff rates with the Walker tariff of 1846. The same year, he achieved his other major goal, re-establishment of the Independent Treasury system. True to his campaign pledge to serve only one term, Polk left office in 1849 and returned to Tennessee, where he died three months after leaving the White House. relatively obscure today, scholars have ranked Polk favorably for his ability to promote and achieve the major items on his presidential agenda, despite limiting himself to a single term. He has also been criticized for leading the country into an aggressive war against Mexico and thus exacerbating divides between free and slave states. A property owner who used slave labor for most of his adult life, he kept a plantation in Mississippi and increased his slave ownership while president. The legacy of Polk's presidency of territorial expansion – with the United States reaching the Pacific coast and, roughly, its present contiguous borders – was a nation poised to become a world power, but with sectional divisions gravely exacerbated, setting the stage for the Civil War. PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1849-1850, President, Zachary Taylor, war hero, preserving union when he died. issue was slavery in new mex & cal
US President, 1849-1850, Zachary Taylor ; Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850) was an American military leader who served as the 12th president of the United States from 1849 until his death in 1850. previously was a career officer in the United States Army, rose to the rank of major general and became a national hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican–American War. a result, he won election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union. He died sixteen months into his term, having made no progress on the most divisive issue in Congress, slavery. was born into a prominent family of plantation owners who moved westward from Virginia to Louisville, Kentucky, in his youth; he was the last president born before the adoption of the Constitution. was commissioned as an officer in the U.S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks, establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and entered the Black Hawk War as a colonel in 1832. His success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname "Old Rough and Ready". 1845, during the annexation of Texas, President James K. Polk dispatched Taylor to the Rio Grande in anticipation of a battle with Mexico over the disputed Texas–Mexico border. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, and Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma and drove his troops out of Texas. Taylor then led his troops into Mexico, where they defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey. Defying orders, Taylor led his troops further south and, despite being severely outnumbered, dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna at the Battle of Buena Vista. Taylor's troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, but Taylor retained his popularity. Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political tenets and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination. He won the general election alongside New York politician Millard Fillmore, defeating Democratic Party candidates Lewis Cass and William Orlando Butler, as well as a third-party effort led by former president Martin Van Buren and Charles Francis Adams, Sr. of the Free Soil Party. Taylor became the first president to be elected without having served in a prior political office. president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even though partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda and led to threats of secession from Southerners. Despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, setting the stage for the Compromise of 1850. Taylor died suddenly of a stomach disease on July 9, 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of his term. Historians and scholars have ranked Taylor in the bottom quartile of U.S. presidents, owing in part to his short term of office (16 months), though he has been described as "more a forgettable president than a failed one".[1] PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); ADONIRAM JUDSON, MISSIONARY TO BURMA, 1850, Commemorated April 12 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ;

US, 1849, California Trail Folder, followed Oregon Trail to avoid Mts
US, 1849, California Trail Folder;

California Trail (City of Rocks to Wells and the down Humboldt River)

Salt Lake Cutoff (for both Oregon Trail and California Trail)

California Trail (Raft River Section)

California Trail 1 (Independence, Missouri River 23)

California Trail 1 (Fort Bridger)

California Trail 2 (Salt Lake City)

California Trail 3 (Bear River 10, Malad River Mouth)

California Trail 4 (City of Rocks)

California Trail 5 (Wells, Nevada and Humboldt River)

California Trail 6 (Elko, Nevada)

California Trail 7 (Battle Mountain)

California Trail 8 (Winnemucca, Nevada)

California Trail 9 (Humboldt River Mouth (Humbolt Sink))

California Trail (Nevada City, CA Route from Emigrant Gap, CA)
Nevada City Road;

California Trail - South Fork American River Section, Hwy 50

California Trail (Sonora Road, Carson River, West Walker River, Sonora Pass, Hwy 108)

US, 1849-1910, CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, missionary to Asia, first China, then Japan, St Paul's Tokyo
Richmond, Virginia; CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910) ; was born in Richmond, Virginia, in 1829, and ordained deacon in 1855. Episcopal Church sent him to China, where he was ordained priest in 1857. 1859 he was sent to Nagasaki, Japan, and in 1866 was consecrated Bishop of China and Japan. 1868 Japan was opened to far greater contact with the West than before, and he determined that he could achieve best results by concentrating his efforts on Japan. 1874 (or is that 1877?) a new bishop (Samuel Isaac Joseph Schereschewski, see October 14) was consecrated for China, Williams went to Tokyo (then called Edo or Yedo), where he founded what is now St Paul's University. 1878 he helped unite several mission efforts in the formation of the Nippon Sei Ko Kai, the Holy Catholic Church in Japan. 1889 his health began to fail, and he asked to be relieved. In 1893 a successor was appointed, and Williams stayed on, living in Kyoto and helping to open new mission stations. returned to America in 1908 and died 2 December 1910. by James Kiefer

US, 1850-1853, President, Millard Fillmore, for Kans-Nebr act, abandoned by dem party, northern dem, Lincoln critic
US President, 1850-1853, Millard Fillmore ; Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869) was the 14th president of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857. A northern Democrat who believed that the abolitionist movement was a fundamental threat to the unity of the nation, he alienated anti-slavery groups by supporting and signing the Kansas–Nebraska Act and enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act, yet these efforts failed to stem conflict between North and South. The South eventually seceded and the American Civil War began in 1861. Pierce was born in New Hampshire. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate until his resignation in 1842. His private law practice was a success, and he was appointed New Hampshire's U.S. Attorney in 1845. He took part in the Mexican–American War as a brigadier general in the Army. He was seen by Democrats as a compromise candidate uniting Northern and Southern interests and was nominated as the party's candidate for president on the 49th ballot at the 1852 Democratic National Convention. He and running mate William R. King easily defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham in the 1852 presidential election. president, Pierce simultaneously attempted to enforce neutral standards for civil service while also satisfying the diverse elements of the Democratic Party with patronage, an effort which largely failed and turned many in his party against him. was a Young America expansionist who signed the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico and led a failed attempt to acquire Cuba from Spain. signed trade treaties with Britain and Japan, while his Cabinet reformed their departments and improved accountability, but these successes were overshadowed by political strife during his presidency. popularity declined sharply in the Northern states after he supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which nullified the Missouri Compromise, while many whites in the South continued to support him. Passage of the act led to violent conflict over the expansion of slavery in the American West. administration was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto calling for the annexation of Cuba, a document which was roundly criticized. He fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats in the 1856 presidential election, but was abandoned by his party and his bid failed. His reputation in the North suffered further during the American Civil War as he became a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln. was popular and outgoing, but his family life was difficult. His wife Jane suffered from illness and depression for much of her life and their three children died young.[1] Their last surviving son was killed in a train accident while the family was traveling, shortly before Pierce's inauguration. A heavy drinker for much of his life, Pierce died in 1869 of cirrhosis of the liver. Historians and scholars generally rank Pierce as one of the worst and least memorable U.S. presidents. PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; JAMES CHISHOLM, PRIEST, 15 Sept. 1855 ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1850-1912, CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC, WI, Oxford Movement, High Church, expanded Fond Du Lac diocese
US, 1850-1912, CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC, WI (Lake Winnebago, bottom of the lake), from Boston, Oxford Movement, High Church, Philips Academy, Andover MA, Harvard Law 1853, SSJE Cowley Fathers in England, controversial picture of priests, expanded diocese of Fond Du Lac; Fond du Lac; CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912; Chapman Grafton SSJE (April 12, 1830 – August 30, 1912) was the second Episcopal Bishop of Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. life and education on April 12, 1830, in Boston, Massachusetts,[1] he became an ardent supporter of the Oxford Movement, an affiliation of High Church Anglicans that led to Anglo-Catholicism in The Episcopal Church. graduate of Phillips Academy, Andover in 1846, in 1853 Grafton graduated from Harvard University with a degree in law,[1] but he found himself drawn toward the ordained ministry. Grafton studied theology under William Whittingham, Bishop of Maryland, and was ordained deacon on Dec. 23, 1855. began his ordained ministry as assistant at Reisterstown, Maryland.[1] On May 30, 1858, he was ordained priest.[1] He then served as curate at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Baltimore and chaplain of the deaconesses of the Episcopal Diocese of Maryland. the close of the Civil War, Grafton went to Britain. With Richard Meux Benson and Simeon Wilberforce O'Neill he co-founded the Society of St. John the Evangelist (SSJE), also known as the Cowley Fathers. returned to the United States and, in 1872, became fourth rector of the Church of the Advent in Boston. A jurisdictional dispute concerning Grafton's overseas religious superior led to his withdrawal from the SSJE. Grafton also helped establish the American Congregation of Saint Benedict; and in 1888 he was a founder of the Sisterhood of the Holy Nativity, along with Mother Ruth Margaret. was consecrated bishop on April 25, 1889, at the Cathedral Church of St. Paul the Apostle, Fond du Lac, Wisconsin by William E. McLaren, Bishop of Chicago; Alexander Burgess, Bishop of Quincy; and George F. Seymour, Bishop of Springfield. his tenure as bishop, Grafton spearheaded a great expansion the Episcopal Diocese of Fond du Lac, much of it driven by contributing much of his own personal wealth and soliciting contributions from many of his wealthy friends back east. also left behind a legacy of printed works, sermons and essays. 1900 Grafton was chief consecrator of Reginald Heber Weller as bishop coadjutor of Fond Du Lac. liturgy of the consecration was controversial. The Russian Orthodox bishop of Alaska, Saint Tikhon was present as well as Antoni Kozlowski [pl] of the Polish National Catholic Church. Grafton was photographed with these other bishops wearing copes and miters (which was not widely accepted in the Episcopal Church at that time). The photo became known as the "Fond du Lac Circus". grave in the Cathedral of Saint Paul the Apostle in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin Grafton is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on August 30. Bibliography C. C. Grafton, The Works of the Rt Rev Charles C. Grafton, ed. B. T. Rogers (8 vols., 1914)

US, 1853-1857, President, Franklin Pierce, northern dem, against abolition, for Kans-Nebr Act, for fugitive slave act
US President, 1853-1857, Franklin Pierce; Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869) was the 14th president of the United States, serving from 1853 to 1857. A northern Democrat who believed that the abolitionist movement was a fundamental threat to the unity of the nation, he alienated anti-slavery groups by supporting and signing the Kansas–Nebraska Act and enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act, yet these efforts failed to stem conflict between North and South. The South eventually seceded and the American Civil War began in 1861. was born in New Hampshire. He served in the U.S. House of Representatives and Senate until his resignation in 1842. His private law practice was a success, and he was appointed New Hampshire's U.S. Attorney in 1845. He took part in the Mexican–American War as a brigadier general in the Army. He was seen by Democrats as a compromise candidate uniting Northern and Southern interests and was nominated as the party's candidate for president on the 49th ballot at the 1852 Democratic National Convention. He and running mate William R. King easily defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham in the 1852 presidential election. president, Pierce simultaneously attempted to enforce neutral standards for civil service while also satisfying the diverse elements of the Democratic Party with patronage, an effort which largely failed and turned many in his party against him. He was a Young America expansionist who signed the Gadsden Purchase of land from Mexico and led a failed attempt to acquire Cuba from Spain. He signed trade treaties with Britain and Japan, while his Cabinet reformed their departments and improved accountability, but these successes were overshadowed by political strife during his presidency. His popularity declined sharply in the Northern states after he supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which nullified the Missouri Compromise, while many whites in the South continued to support him. Passage of the act led to violent conflict over the expansion of slavery in the American West. Pierce's administration was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto calling for the annexation of Cuba, a document which was roundly criticized. He fully expected to be renominated by the Democrats in the 1856 presidential election, but was abandoned by his party and his bid failed. His reputation in the North suffered further during the American Civil War as he became a vocal critic of President Abraham Lincoln. was popular and outgoing, but his family life was difficult. His wife Jane suffered from illness and depression for much of her life and their three children died young.[1] Their last surviving son was killed in a train accident while the family was traveling, shortly before Pierce's inauguration. A heavy drinker for much of his life, Pierce died in 1869 of cirrhosis of the liver. Historians and scholars generally rank Pierce as one of the worst and least memorable U.S. presidents. WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; JAMES CHISHOLM, PRIEST, 15 Sept. 1855 ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1853-1907, CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST & CHIEF, lifelong Episcopalian, fought preserve Oneida lands, rights, moves further west
US, 1853-1907, CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, lifelong Episcopalian, fought to preserve indian lands, rights, attempts to move them further west; Nashota House; CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; Hill (November 13, 1834 – January 25, 1907) or Onangwatgo (“Big Medicine”) the last hereditary chief of the Oneida Nation, and fought to preserve his people's lands and rights under various treaties with the United States government. lifelong Episcopalian, he was ordained a priest at age 69, and ministered to his people until shortly before his death. Hill was born on tribal lands in Wisconsin and baptised by missionary bishop Jackson Kemper. 1843, Episcopal missionary the Rev. James Lloyd Breck escorted the ten-year-old and two other boys to the newly established Nashotah House to learn English and be educated. a teenager, at a council of Oneida from New York, Canada and Wisconsin, Hill became a chief of his Bear Clan. settlers were moving into Wisconsin, and coveted tribal lands, which were held in common under an 1838 treaty. to the Dawes Act of 1887, the federal government allocated the tribe's Wisconsin land to individuals beginning in 1892, who were to be allowed to transfer that property after a 25-year waiting period. had happened in New York State, unscrupulous persons often tried to swindle tribal members out of their allocations. his life, Hill fought such dismemberment of tribal property, as well as government attempts to move his people further In 1893 after negotiations with the federal government, Hill, together with the Rev. Solomon S. Burleson (also a lawyer and doctor), secured a hospital and boarding school for the reservation. for years served as an organist and interpreter for Episcopal services by the Rev. Goodnough and his successors, as well as being his tribe's sachem and delegate to church councils, Hill thought ordination would bring additional authority among whites as well as help him become a bridge between the cultures. June 27, 1895, Bishop Charles C. Grafton ordained Hill a deacon. On June 24, 1903, Bishop Grafton ordained Hill as a priest, the first of his people; during the ceremony Hill repeated his vows in his native language. died on January 25, 1907, having fallen ill shortly before Christmas. After three requiems and funeral at the Church of the Holy Apostles attended by 800 persons, he was buried in the graveyard with other tribal members and the missionaries he assisted. information may be found at Wikipedia and in Chapter 25 of the book The Oneida, by Julia Keen Bloomfield.

US, 1855-1910, JOHN LAFARGE, American painter, muralist, stained glass window maker, decorator, and writer
Unity Church of North Easton, Massachusetts; North Easton, Massachusetts; Unity Church of North Easton John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; painter, muralist, stained glass window maker, decorator, and writer. labors in almost every type of art won for him from the French Government the Cross of the Legion of Honor and membership in the principal artistic societies of America, as well as the presidency of the National Society of Mural Painters from 1899 through 1904. Enjoying an extraordinary knowledge of languages (ancient and modern), literature, and art, by his cultured personality and reflective conversation he influenced many other people. Though naturally a questioner he venerated the traditions of religious art, and preserved always his Catholic faith and reverence. Farge experimented with color problems, especially in the medium of stained glass. He succeeded not only in rivaling the gorgeousness of medieval windows, but in adding new resources by his invention of opalescent glass and his original methods of superimposing and welding his material. his many stained glass masterpieces are: LaFarge window at All Saints, Whitman, Mass. LaFarge window at the web author's former parish church, All Saints, Whitman, Mass.. two of his largest windows, the 1887 "Angel of Help" and the 1901 "Figure of Wisdom", in Unity Church in North Easton, Massachusetts. Sealing of the Twelve Tribes, Trinity Episcopal Church, Buffalo, New York, 1889 two windows at the Thomas Crane Public Library, Quincy, Massachusetts 14 windows at the Judson Memorial Church, Greenwich Village, New York City four windows at the Trinity Church, Boston windows at the St. Paul's Chapel, Columbia University, NYC rose window at the First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia

US, 1855-1931, Third Great Awakening, Social Gospel, worldwide missions, Holiness, JW's, Spiritualism, Christian Sci, revivals
US, 1855-1910, Third Great Awakening, Social Gospel, worldwide missions, Holiness, Nazarene, Pentecostal, JW's, Unitarians, Spiritualism, Christian Science, abolition, prohibition, revivals, child labor; Third Great Awakening refers to a historical period proposed by William G. McLoughlin that was marked by religious activism in American history and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century.[1] influenced pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism.[2] gathered strength from the postmillennial belief that the Second Coming of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. was affiliated with the Social Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. groupings emerged, such as the Holiness movement and Nazarene and Pentecostal movements, and also Jehovah's Witnesses, Spiritualism, Theosophy, Thelema, and Christian Science.[3] era saw the adoption of a number of moral causes, such as the abolition of slavery and prohibition. Scott Latourette disputed the thesis that the United States had a Third Great Awakening.)[4][full citation needed] article focuses on the awakening that took place during the nineteenth century in America. far, it also includes material about Korea. A similar awakening took place in Britain, identified by J. Edwin Orr as starting in 1859 with its influence continuing through to the end of the century, impacting church growth, overseas mission, and social action.[5] American Protestant mainline churches were growing rapidly in numbers, wealth and educational levels, throwing off their frontier beginnings and becoming centered in towns and cities. and writers such as Josiah Strong advocated a muscular Christianity with systematic outreach to the unchurched in America and around the globe. Others built colleges and universities to train the next generation. denomination supported active missionary societies, and made the role of missionary one of high prestige.[6] names include Dwight L. Moody, Ira D. Sankey, William Booth and Catherine Booth (founders of the Salvation Army), Charles Spurgeon and James Caughey. Hudson Taylor began the China Inland Mission, and Thomas John Barnardo founded his famous orphanages. great majority of pietistic mainline Protestants (in the North) supported the Republican Party, and urged it to endorse prohibition and social reforms.[7] (See Third Party System). awakening in numerous cities in 1858 was interrupted by the American Civil War. the South, on the other hand, the Civil War stimulated revivals, especially the Confederate States Army revival in General Robert E. Lee's army.[8][full citation needed] the war, Dwight L. Moody made revivalism the centerpiece of his activities in Chicago, and founded the Moody Bible Institute. The hymns of Ira Sankey were especially influential.[9] the nation drys crusaded in the name of religion for the prohibition of alcohol. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union mobilized Protestant women for social crusades against liquor, pornography and prostitution, and sparked the demand for women's suffrage.[10] Gilded Age plutocracy came under sharp attack from Social Gospel preachers and reformers in the Progressive Era. historian Robert Fogel identifies numerous reforms, especially the battles involving child labor, compulsory elementary education, and the protection of women from exploitation in factories.[11] With Jane Addams's Hull House in Chicago as its center, the settlement house movement and the vocation of social work were deeply influenced by the Social Gospel.[12] 1880, the Salvation Army denomination arrived in America. Although its theology was based on ideals expressed during the Second Great Awakening, its focus on poverty was of the Third. the major denominations sponsored growing missionary activities, both inside the United States and around the world.[13][full citation needed] associated with churches rapidly expanded in number, size and quality of curriculum. promotion of "muscular Christianity" became popular among young men on campus and in urban YMCAs, well as in such denominational youth groups such as the Epworth League for Methodists and the Walther League for Lutherans.[14] baseball player Billy Sunday converted as a young man in the 1880s, became an evangelist, and is widely considered America's most influential evangelist of the first two decades in the 20th century. 1891, basketball was invented at the International Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts. religions[edit] 1879 Mary Baker Eddy invented Christian Science, which gained a national following.[15] Society for Ethical Culture was established in New York in 1876 by Felix Adler and attracted a Reform Jewish clientele. Taze Russell founded the Bible Students movement. In July 1879, Russell began publishing a monthly religious journal, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence. He and his group of fellow students first identified themselves as The People's Pulpit Association, then in 1910 as The International Bible Students Association. 1931, after schisms within the Bible Students and gaining control of the legal entity Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Joseph Franklin Rutherford along with former members of the Bible Student movement would go on to adopt the name Jehovah's Witnesses. New Thought movement, which began in the 1830s, expanded as Unity and Church of Divine Science were founded. Holiness and Pentecostal Movements[edit] goal of the Holiness Movement in the Methodist Church was to move beyond the one-time conversion experience that the revivals produced, and reach entire sanctification.[16] Pentecostals went one step further, seeking what they called a "baptism in the spirit" or "baptism of the Holy Ghost" that enabled those with this special gift to heal the sick, perform miracles, prophesy, and speak in tongues.[17] re-discovered Pentecostal movement can be traced to the Ocoee mountains, near North Carolina in the upper Tennessee River valley, when a group led by Methodist minister Richard Spurling met in 1886-96 and called for holy living. At that time they experienced what is known as the Baptism of the Holy Spirit, empowering Christians to live in holiness. is known of this movement because it happened in the mountains, compared to the Azusa street revival which happened in Los Angeles, California. the organization born from that group led by Spurling has grown to an international presence in over 200 countries around the world with a church membership of over 7 million Christians; it is known as the "Church of God", with headquarters in Cleveland, Tennessee. The organization owns Lee University and Pentecostal Theological Seminary. Parham in Topeka, Kansas, who was also a Methodist minister, resigned his ordination as a minister and began preaching about the Baptism of the Holy Spirit. During a service on December 31, 1899 Parham laid hands on a woman named Agnes Ozman; she is supposed to have received the Baptism of the Holy Spirit and to have begun speaking in tongues and prophesying. This is the root of the better known "Azusa Street Revival" in Los Angeles, California (1906) led by William J. Seymour, an African American student of Parham's. on Korea[edit] See also: Manchurian revival Beh Im compared the evangelistic method and results of the Third Great Awakening in America with the Korean revivals of 1884–1910. Many techniques of the Second and Third Great Awakenings were transposed from America to Korea, including the circuit-riding system of the Methodists, the Baptist farmer preachers, the campus revivals of the eastern seaboard, the camp meetings in the West, the new measures of Charles G. Finney, the Layman's Prayer Revival, urban mass revivalism of D. L. Moody, and the Student Volunteer Movement. Im discovered four areas of influence from a comparison and analysis of the two countries' revivals: the establishment of tradition, the adoption of similar emphases, the incorporation of evangelistic methodologies, and the observation of the results of the revivals. The American revivals had a major influence on the Korean revivals, and the American revival tradition and enthusiasm toward missions helped Korean Christians develop their own religious experience and tradition. This tradition has influenced Korean churches even into the 21st century.[18]

US, 1859, Central Overland Route Folder, straight through high mountains, using passes
US, 1859, Central Overland Route Folder;

Central Overland Route (Salt Lake City, UT to Carson City, NV)
Central Overland Route ;

Central Overland Route 1 (Fairfield, UT)

Central Overland Route 2

Central Overland Route 3 (Callao, UT)

Central Overland Route 4 (Ibapah, UT)

Central Overland Route 5 (Ely, NV)

Central Overland Route 6

Central Overland Route 7

Central Overland Route 21 (Fallon, NV)

Central Overland Route 22 (Fernley, NV)

Central Overland Route 23 (Silver Springs, NV)

Central Overland Route 24 (Dayton, NV)

Central Overland Route 25 (Carson City, NV)

US, 1857-1861, President, James Buchanan, for state's rights, for Supreme Court pro slavery Dred Scott Decison
US President, 1857-1861, James Buchanan; Buchanan Jr. (April 23, 1791 - June 1, 1868) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 15th president of the United States from 1857 to 1861. previously served as secretary of state from 1845 to 1849 and represented Pennsylvania in both houses of the U.S. Congress. was a states' rights advocate, and minimized the role of the federal government in the nation's final years of slavery. was a prominent lawyer in Pennsylvania and won his first election to the state's House of Representatives as a Federalist. was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1820 and retained that post for 11 years, aligning with Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party. served as Jackson's minister to Russia (1832). He won election in 1834 as a U.S. senator from Pennsylvania and also held that position for 11 years. Buchanan was appointed to serve as President James K. Polk's secretary of state in 1845, and eight years later was named as President Franklin Pierce's minister to the United Kingdom. 1846, Buchanan was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society.[3] in 1844, Buchanan became a regular contender for the Democratic party's presidential nomination. He was finally nominated in 1856, defeating incumbent Franklin Pierce and Senator Stephen A. Douglas at the Democratic National Convention; benefited from the fact that he had been out of the country (as ambassador in London) and thus had not been involved in slavery issues. Buchanan and running mate John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky carried every slave state except Maryland, defeating anti-slavery Republican John C. Frémont and Know-Nothing former president Millard Fillmore to win the 1856 presidential election. President, Buchanan intervened in the Supreme Court to gather majority support of the pro-slavery and anti-black decision in the Dred Scott case. He did what Southern leaders wanted in attempting to engineer Kansas coming into the Union as a slave state under the Lecompton Constitution. He thereby angered not only the Republicans but also many Northern Democrats. honored his pledge to serve only one term, and supported Breckinridge's unsuccessful candidacy in the 1860 presidential election. He failed to reconcile the fractured Democratic party due to a simmering grudge against Stephen Douglas, leading to a four-way electoral split and the election of Republican and former Congressman Abraham Lincoln. weeks after Lincoln was elected as Buchanan's successor, Southern states began seceding from the Union, precipitating the American Civil War. Buchanan's bumbling leadership during his lame duck period was widely criticized. He simultaneously angered the North by not stopping secession, and the South by not acceding to their secession. He supported the ill-fated Corwin Amendment in an attempt to reconcile the country, but it was too little too late. He made an unsuccessful attempt to reinforce the defenders of Fort Sumter, but otherwise refrained from taking any action to prepare the military. His failure to forestall the Civil War has been described alternatively as incompetent inaction, or passive acceptance of the South. contemporaries blamed him for the war, and he was much reviled after his presidency. He spent his last years defending his reputation. In his personal life, Buchanan never married and as of 2021, he is the only U.S. president to remain a lifelong bachelor. Biographers have variously suggested that he was celibate, homosexual, or asexual. Buchanan died of respiratory failure in 1868, and was buried in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he had lived for nearly 60 years. historians and critics condemn him for not addressing the issue of slavery or forestalling the secession of the Southern states over it. Historians and scholars consistently rank Buchanan as one of the country's worst presidents. WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; HARRIET STARR CANNON, RELIGIOUS, 1896, Commemorated May 7; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1859, John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry
Harpers Ferry, West Virginia; Harriet Ross Tubman of ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, AMELIA BLOOMER, SOJOURNER TRUTH, HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN: FOUR AMERICAN PIONEERS OF BLACK RIGHTS AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS, Commemorated July 20; 1849, Tubman escaped to Philadelphia, only to return to Maryland to rescue her family soon after. Slowly, one group at a time, she brought relatives with her out of the state, and eventually guided dozens of other enslaved people to freedom. Traveling by night and in extreme secrecy, Tubman (or "Moses", as she was called) "never lost a passenger".[3] After the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed, she helped guide fugitives farther north into British North America (Canada), and helped newly freed enslaved people find work. Tubman met John Brown in 1858, and helped him plan and recruit supporters for his 1859 raid on Harpers Ferry. Elizabeth Cady Stanton of ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, AMELIA BLOOMER, SOJOURNER TRUTH, HARRIET ROSS TUBMAN: FOUR AMERICAN PIONEERS OF BLACK RIGHTS AND WOMEN'S RIGHTS, Commemorated July 20; Cady Stanton (November 12, 1815 - October 26, 1902) was a leader of the women's rights movement in the U.S. during the mid- to late-1800s. and family Cady Stanton and her daughter, Harriot a young woman, Stanton traveled often to the home of her cousin, Gerrit Smith, who also lived in upstate New York. His views were very different from those of her conservative father. was an abolitionist and a member of the "Secret Six," a group of men who financed John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in an effort to spark an armed uprising of enslaved African Americans.[11] At Smith's home, she met Henry Brewster Stanton, a prominent abolitionist agent. her father's reservations, the couple married in 1840, omitting the word "obey" from the marriage ceremony. Stanton later wrote, "I obstinately refused to obey one with whom I supposed I was entering into an equal relation."[12] uncommon, this practice was not unheard of; Quakers had been omitting "obey" from the marriage ceremony for some time.[13] took her husband's surname as part of her own, signing herself Elizabeth Cady Stanton or E. Cady Stanton, but not Mrs. Henry B. Stanton. after returning from their European honeymoon, the Stantons moved into the Cady household in Johnstown. Henry Stanton studied law under his father-in-law until 1843, when the Stantons moved to Boston (Chelsea), Massachusetts, where Henry joined a law firm. While living in Boston, Elizabeth enjoyed the social, political, and intellectual stimulation that came with a constant round of abolitionist gatherings. Here, she was influenced by such people as Frederick Douglass, William Lloyd Garrison and Ralph Waldo Emerson.[14] In 1847, the Stantons moved to Seneca Falls, New York, in the Finger Lakes region. Their house, which is now a part of the Women's Rights National Historical Park, was purchased for them by Elizabeth's father.[15] Stanton house in Seneca Falls couple had seven children. At that time, child-bearing was considered to be a subject that should be handled with great delicacy. Stanton took a different approach, raising a flag in front of her house after giving birth, a red flag for a boy and a white one for a girl.[16] One of her daughters, Harriot Stanton Blatch, became, like her mother, a leader of the women's suffrage movement. Because of the spacing of their children's births, one historian has concluded that the Stantons must have used birth control methods. Stanton herself said her children were conceived by what she called "voluntary motherhood." In an era when it was commonly held that a wife must submit to her husband's sexual demands, Stanton believed that women should have command over their sexual relationships and childbearing.[17] She also said, however, that "a healthy woman has as much passion as a man."[18] encouraged both her sons and daughters to pursue a broad range of interests, activities, and learning.[19] She was remembered by her daughter Margaret as being "cheerful, sunny and indulgent."[20] She enjoyed motherhood and running a large household, but she found herself unsatisfied and even depressed by the lack of intellectual companionship and stimulation in Seneca Falls.[21] the 1850s, Henry's work as a lawyer and politician kept him away from home for nearly 10 months out of every year. This frustrated Elizabeth when the children were small, because it made it difficult for her to travel.[22] The pattern continued in later years, with husband and wife living apart more often than together, maintaining separate households for several years. Their marriage, which lasted 47 years, ended with Henry Stanton's death in 1887.[23] Henry and Elizabeth were staunch abolitionists, but Henry, like Elizabeth's father, disagreed with the idea of female suffrage.[24] One biographer described Henry as, "at best a halfhearted 'women's rights man.'"[25]

US, 1860-1918, DAMIEN and MARIANNE of MOLOKAI Island, Hawaii, Leprosy isolation, organized Ls, Marianne replaced D
Belgium, 1816-1918, DAMIEN and MARIANNE of MOLOKAI Island, Hawaii, Leprosy isolation, organized burial, grow crops, choir, medical, built chapel, Marianne from Germany, replaced D, miraculously did not get Leprosy; Molokai; DAMIEN and MARIANNE of MOLOKAI, PRIEST AND LEPER, 1889; RELIGIOUS 1918, Commemorated April 15 ; the 1800's, the Hawaiian Islands suffered a severe leprosy epidemic, which was dealt with largely by isolating lepers on the island of Molokai. were simply dumped there and left to fend for themselves. The crews of the boats carrying them there were afraid to land, so they simply came in close and forced the lepers to jump overboard and scramble through the surf as best they could. Ashore, they found no law and no organized society, simply desperate persons waiting for death. Belgian missionary priest, Joseph Van Veuster (Damien of the Fathers of the Sacred Heart), born in 1840, came to Hawaii in 1863, and in 1873 was sent at his own request to Molokai to work among the lepers. organized burial details and funeral services, so that death might have some dignity. He taught the people how to grow crops and feed themselves better. He organized a choir, and got persons to sing who had not sung in years. He gave them medical attention. doctors had been making regular visits, but they were afraid of contagion, and would not come close to the patients. They inspected their sores from a distance and then left medicines on a table and fled. Damien personally washed and anointed and bandaged their sores.) was already a small chapel on the island. It proved too small, and with the aid of patients he built a larger one, which soon overflowed every Sunday. Damien contracted leprosy himself in 1885, and continued to work there until his death on 15 April 1889. — by James Kiefer; more at Wikipedia Marianne Cope Marianne Cope (January 23, 1838 – August 9, 1918), was a Franciscan nun of the Sisters of the Third Order of Saint Francis, a religious order of the Roman Catholic Church. in Heppenheim (Germany) and entered religious life in Syracuse, New York, she worked, lived and died for the lepers on the island of Moloka'i in Hawai'i. She was not herself afflicted by the disease, a fact arguably declared to be miraculous considering her close contact with the patients over the course of several years. the age of three her family moved from Germany to the United States, settling in Utica, New York. After joining the Franciscans, she spent nearly a decade as a teacher and then principal in newly established schools for German immigrants. She was also a founding member of two of the first Catholic hospitals in the United States. November 1883, Mother Marianne, then Provincial Mother, traveled from Syracuse to Honolulu with six other nuns to answer a call for aid to the Hansen's disease sufferers. In 1888, she moved to Kalaupapa to help the ailing Father Damien of Moloka'i. When the famed priest died, Mother Marianne Cope took over the care of the patients of Kalaupapa. She remained there until her death in 1918. — more at Wikipedia

US, 1860-1912, LOTTIE MOON, direct evangelism, woman to w, china missionary 40 years, Chinese culture and clothes helped
Virginia, 1860-1912, LOTTIE MOON, Viewmont, in Albemarle County, Virginia (Rivanna River 1), direct evangelism, woman to woman, southern slave plantation, master of Arts 1861, china missionary 40 years 1873-1912, taking on Chinese culture and clothes helped; Viewmont, in Albemarle County, Virgini; LOTTIE MOON, Commemorated December 22 ; Digges "Lottie" Moon (December 12, 1840 – December 24 , 1912) was a Southern Baptist missionary to China with the Foreign Mission Board who spent nearly forty years (1873-1912) helping the Chinese. As a teacher and evangelist she laid a foundation for traditionally solid support for missions among Baptists in America. was born to affluent parents who were staunch Baptists, on the family's ancestral fifteen-hundred-acre slave-labor tobacco plantation called Viewmont, in Albemarle County, Virginia. Moon family valued education, and at age fourteen Lottie went to school at the Baptist-affiliated Virginia Female Seminary (high school, later Hollins Institute) and Albemarle Female Institute in Charlottesville, Virginia. 1861 Moon received one of the first Master of Arts degrees awarded to a woman by a southern institution. underwent a spiritual awakening at the age of 18, after a series of revival meetings on the college campus. On July 7, 1873, the Foreign Mission Board officially appointed Lottie as a missionary to China. joined her sister Edmonia at the North China Mission Station in the treaty port of Dengzhou, and began her ministry by teaching in a girls school. (Edmonia had to return home a short time later for health reasons.) accompanying some of the seasoned missionary wives on “country visits” to outlying villages, Lottie discovered her passion: direct evangelism. mission work at that time was done by married men, but the wives of China missionaries Tarleton Perry Crawford and Landrum Holmes had discovered an important reality: women could reach Chinese women. Lottie soon became frustrated, convinced that her talent was being wasted and could be better put to use in evangelism and church planting. Lottie wrote: we wonder at the mortal weariness and disgust, the sense of wasted powers and the conviction that her life is a failure, that comes over a woman when, instead of the ever broadening activities that she had planned, she finds herself tied down to the petty work of teaching a few girls? in a family “of culture and means,” Lottie at first thought of the Chinese as an inferior people, and insisted on wearing American clothes to maintain a degree of distance from the “heathen” people. gradually she came to realize that the more she shed her westernized trappings and identified with the Chinese people, the more their simple curiosity about foreigners (and sometimes rejection) turned into genuine interest in the Gospel. began wearing Chinese clothes, adopted Chinese customs, learned to be sensitive to Chinese culture, and came to respect and admire Chinese culture and learning. In turn she gained love and respect from many Chinese people. Moon has come to personify the missionary spirit for Southern Baptists and many other Christians, as well. The annual Lottie Moon Christmas Offering for Missions has raised a total of $1.5 billion for missions since 1888, and finances half the entire Southern Baptist missions budget every year. more from Wikipedia

US, 1861-1865, President, Abraham Lincoln, preserved Union, abolished slavery, modernized economy, killed
US President, 1861-1865, Abraham Lincoln ; Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. Lincoln led the nation through the American Civil War, the country's greatest moral, cultural, constitutional, and political crisis. He succeeded in preserving the Union, abolishing slavery, bolstering the federal government, and modernizing the U.S. economy. was born into poverty in a log cabin and was raised on the frontier primarily in Indiana. was self-educated and became a lawyer, Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator, and U.S. Congressman from Illinois. 1849, he returned to his law practice but became vexed by the opening of additional lands to slavery as a result of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. reentered politics in 1854, becoming a leader in the new Republican Party, and he reached a national audience in the 1858 debates against Stephen Douglas. ran for President in 1860, sweeping the North in victory. Pro-slavery elements in the South equated his success with the North's rejection of their right to practice slavery, and southern states began seceding from the Union. secure its independence, the new Confederate States fired on Fort Sumter, a U.S. fort in the South, and Lincoln called up forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the Union. a moderate Republican, had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from both the Democratic and Republican parties. His allies, the War Democrats and the Radical Republicans, demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. Anti-war Democrats (called "Copperheads") despised Lincoln, and irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements plotted his assassination. He managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. His Gettysburg Address appealed to nationalistic, republican, egalitarian, libertarian, and democratic sentiments. scrutinized the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals and the naval blockade of the South's trade. He suspended habeas corpus in Maryland, and he averted British intervention by defusing the Trent Affair. engineered the end to slavery with his Emancipation Proclamation, including his order that the Army and Navy liberate, protect, and recruit former slaves. He also encouraged border states to outlaw slavery, and promoted the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which outlawed slavery across the country. managed his own successful re-election campaign. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just days after the war's end at Appomattox, he was attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., with his wife Mary when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. is remembered as a martyr and hero of the United States and is consistently ranked as one of the greatest presidents in American history. SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 ; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; HARRIET STARR CANNON, RELIGIOUS, 1896, Commemorated May 7; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896;

US, 1863-1869,Transcontinental Railroad, Alameda, CA, Council Bluffs, IA, New York, NY
US, 1863-1869,Transcontinental Railroad

Transcontinental Railroad, I80, Alameda, CA, Council Bluffs, IA, New York, NY

Alameda,Transcontinental Railroad, CA to Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB and on, Interstate 80
Alameda,Transcontinental Railroad, CA to Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB and on, Interstate 80 America's first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the "Pacific Railroad" and later as the "Overland Route") was a 1,911-mile (3,075 km) continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay.[1] The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants.[2] Construction was financed by both state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds.[3][4][5][N 1] The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi (212 km) of track from the road's western terminus at Alameda/Oakland to Sacramento, California. The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California (CPRR) constructed 690 mi (1,110 km) east wm Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. The Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR) built 1,085 mi (1,746 km) from the road's eastern terminus at the Missouri River settlements of Council Bluffs and Omaha, Nebraska westward to Promontory Summit.[7][8][9] railroad opened for through traffic between Sacramento and Omaha on May 10, 1869, when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially tapped the gold "Last Spike" (later often referred to as the "Golden Spike") with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit.[10][11] [N 2] In the following six months, the last leg from Sacramento to San Francisco Bay was completed. The resulting coast-to-coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West.[N 3][N 4] It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker, safer and less expensive. first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus at the Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf, about a mile to the north, when its expansion was completed and opened for passengers on November 8, 1869.[15][16][N 5] Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry. CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles (85 km) of UPRR-built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, Utah Territory (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line became popularly known as the Overland Route after the name of the principal passenger rail service to Chicago that operated over the length of the line until 1962.[19]

Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, Transcontinental Railroad from Alameda, CA, on Interstate 80
Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, Transcontinental Railroad from Alameda, CA, on Interstate 80 Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, Transcontinental Railroad from Alameda, CA, on Interstate 80 America's first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the "Pacific Railroad" and later as the "Overland Route") was a 1,911-mile (3,075 km) continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay.[1] The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants.[2] Construction was financed by both state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds.[3][4][5][N 1] The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi (212 km) of track from the road's western terminus at Alameda/Oakland to Sacramento, California. The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California (CPRR) constructed 690 mi (1,110 km) east wm Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. The Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR) built 1,085 mi (1,746 km) from the road's eastern terminus at the Missouri River settlements of Council Bluffs and Omaha, Nebraska westward to Promontory Summit.[7][8][9] railroad opened for through traffic between Sacramento and Omaha on May 10, 1869, when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially tapped the gold "Last Spike" (later often referred to as the "Golden Spike") with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit.[10][11] [N 2] In the following six months, the last leg from Sacramento to San Francisco Bay was completed. The resulting coast-to-coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West.[N 3][N 4] It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker, safer and less expensive. first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus at the Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf, about a mile to the north, when its expansion was completed and opened for passengers on November 8, 1869.[15][16][N 5] Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry. CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles (85 km) of UPRR-built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, Utah Territory (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line became popularly known as the Overland Route after the name of the principal passenger rail service to Chicago that operated over the length of the line until 1962.[19]

New York, NY,Transcontinentla RWY, to Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, to Alameda, CA, I80
New York, NY,Transcontinentla RWY, to Council Bluffs, IA/Omaha, NB, to Alameda, CA, I80 America's first transcontinental railroad (known originally as the "Pacific Railroad" and later as the "Overland Route") was a 1,911-mile (3,075 km) continuous railroad line constructed between 1863 and 1869 that connected the existing eastern U.S. rail network at Council Bluffs, Iowa with the Pacific coast at the Oakland Long Wharf on San Francisco Bay.[1] The rail line was built by three private companies over public lands provided by extensive US land grants.[2] Construction was financed by both state and US government subsidy bonds as well as by company issued mortgage bonds.[3][4][5][N 1] The Western Pacific Railroad Company built 132 mi (212 km) of track from the road's western terminus at Alameda/Oakland to Sacramento, California. The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California (CPRR) constructed 690 mi (1,110 km) east wm Sacramento to Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. The Union Pacific Railroad (UPRR) built 1,085 mi (1,746 km) from the road's eastern terminus at the Missouri River settlements of Council Bluffs and Omaha, Nebraska westward to Promontory Summit.[7][8][9] railroad opened for through traffic between Sacramento and Omaha on May 10, 1869, when CPRR President Leland Stanford ceremonially tapped the gold "Last Spike" (later often referred to as the "Golden Spike") with a silver hammer at Promontory Summit.[10][11] [N 2] In the following six months, the last leg from Sacramento to San Francisco Bay was completed. The resulting coast-to-coast railroad connection revolutionized the settlement and economy of the American West.[N 3][N 4] It brought the western states and territories into alignment with the northern Union states and made transporting passengers and goods coast-to-coast considerably quicker, safer and less expensive. first transcontinental rail passengers arrived at the Pacific Railroad's original western terminus at the Alameda Terminal on September 6, 1869, where they transferred to the steamer Alameda for transport across the Bay to San Francisco. The road's rail terminus was moved two months later to the Oakland Long Wharf, about a mile to the north, when its expansion was completed and opened for passengers on November 8, 1869.[15][16][N 5] Service between San Francisco and Oakland Pier continued to be provided by ferry. CPRR eventually purchased 53 miles (85 km) of UPRR-built grade from Promontory Summit (MP 828) to Ogden, Utah Territory (MP 881), which became the interchange point between trains of the two roads. The transcontinental line became popularly known as the Overland Route after the name of the principal passenger rail service to Chicago that operated over the length of the line until 1962.[19]

US, 1863-1885, Central Pacific Railroad, western transcontinental, acquired by Southern Pacific 1885
Southern Pacific Railroad; Central Pacific Railroad

Chicago, IL Southern Pacific Railroad

St. Louis, MO, SPCSL, Souther Pacific Railroad

Chicago, St Louis, Kansas City, Southern Pacific Railroad

Kansas City, MO, SSW, Southern Pacific Railroad

Kansas City, Tucumcari, Southern Pacific Railroad

Tucumcari, NM, SSW, Southern Pacific Railroad

El Paso Tocumcari, Southern Pacific Railroad

El Paso, TX, SSW, Southern Pacific Railroad

Nogales, AZ, Southern Pacific Railroad

Nogales Loop, Southern Pacific Railroad

Tucson, AZ, Southern Pacific Railroad

Phoenix, AZ, Souther Pacific Railroad

El Paso to Yuma, Southern Pacific Railroad

Yuma, AZ, Southern Pacific Railroad

Yuma to Los Angeles, Southern Pacific Railroad

Los Angeles, CA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Yuma to San Diego Spur, Southern Pacific Railroad

San Diego, CA, Souther Pacific Railroad Spur

LA to Watsonville near Fresno, Southern Pacific Railroad

Watsonville to Willis, Southern Pacific Railway

Oakland, CA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Watsonville, Oakland, Sacramento to Klamath Falls, Southern Pacific Railroad

Sacramento, CA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Mount Shasta, CA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Klamath Falls, OR, Southern Pacific Railroad

Eugene, OR, Southern Pacific Railroad

Klamath, Eugene, Salem Beaverton to Portland, South Pacific Railroad

Portland, OR, Southern Pacific Railroad

New Orleans, LA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Mississippi River

Baton Rouge, LA, Southern Pacific Railroad

Sabine River

Houston, TX, Southern Pacific Railroad

Brazos River

Colorado River (Texas)

San Antonio to New Orleans, Southern Pacific Railroad

San Antonio, TX, Southern Pacific Railroad

Continental Divide - Llano Escatado

Devils River (Texas)

Pecos River

El Paso to San Antonio, Southern Pacific Railroad

El Paso, TX, Sunset Route, Southern Pacific Railroad

US, 1864-1924, Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, evangelism and healing hand in hand, trance-like spiritual experiences
US, 1864-1924, Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, New Lisbon, OH (Mahoning River Source), evangelism and healing hand in hand, trance-like spiritual experiences; New Lisbon, OH; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Buelah Woodworth-Etter (July 22, 1844–September 16, 1924) was an American healing evangelist. Her ministry style was a model for Pentecostalism.[1] was born in New Lisbon, Columbiana County, Ohio, as Mariah Beulah Underwood. was born again at the beginning of the Third Great Awakening at the age of thirteen. immediately heard the call of God and dedicated her life to the Lord. her calling she would later write, "I heard the voice of Jesus calling me to go out in the highways and hedges and gather in the lost sheep." 1863, she married Philo Horace Woodworth, whom she divorced for infidelity in 1891. had six children with Woodworth, five of whom died young. 1902, she married Samuel Etter, who died in 1914.[2] studied the scriptures and began preaching the Lord's divine will in healing. It didn't take long to see that evangelism and healing went hand in hand as thousands were won to Christ as a result of seeing others healed. Sister Etter pioneered the way for Pentecostal manifestations that are so common in Charismatic and Pentecostal groups today. earliest exposure to religion was through a local Disciples of Christ congregation. After her marriage, she chose to enter evangelistic ministry. Prohibited from public preaching among the Disciples, she found support in a local Quaker meeting. was while associating with the Quakers that she received the baptism in the Holy Spirit while praying for an "anointing for service".[1] this experience, she began to preach. hundreds of conversions, her campaigns attracted reporters from across the country. She was briefly affiliated with the Brethren in Christ but eventually joined the Church of God of the General Eldership founded by John Winebrenner. was dismissed from the Church of God in 1904.[1] began to pray for the sick in 1885, believing that those with sufficient faith would be healed. Her meetings also became known for people falling to the floor in trance-like states. people would later report profound spiritual experiences while in such a state. she preached throughout the nation, her reputation grew, leading her to purchase an 8,000-seat tent in which to conduct her services. 1912 she joined the young Pentecostal movement and preached widely in Pentecostal circles until her death, helping found the Assemblies of God in 1914.[1][3] 1918 she founded what is today Lakeview Church (Temple) of Indianapolis, Indiana.[2]

US, 1865-1869, President, Andrew Johnson, southern democrat, chosen VP for national unity, tried to reverse reconstruction
US President, 1865-1869, Andrew Johnson ; Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 17th president of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. He assumed the presidency as he was vice president at the time of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. was a Democrat who ran with Lincoln on the National Union ticket, coming to office as the Civil War concluded. He favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union without protection for the former slaves. This led to conflict with the Republican-dominated Congress, culminating in his impeachment by the House of Representatives in 1868. He was acquitted in the Senate by one vote. was born into poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina, and he never attended school. He was apprenticed as a tailor and worked in several frontier towns before settling in Greeneville, Tennessee. served as alderman and mayor there before being elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1835. brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the House of Representatives in 1843, where he served five two-year terms. became governor of Tennessee for four years, and was elected by the legislature to the Senate in 1857. his congressional service, he sought passage of the Homestead Bill which was enacted soon after he left his Senate seat in 1862. slave states seceded to form the Confederate States of America, including Tennessee, but Johnson remained firmly with the Union. He was the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon learning of his state's secession. 1862, Lincoln appointed him as Military Governor of Tennessee after most of it had been retaken. In 1864, Johnson was a logical choice as running mate for Lincoln, who wished to send a message of national unity in his re-election campaign; and became vice president after a victorious election in 1864. implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction, a series of proclamations directing the seceded states to hold conventions and elections to reform their civil governments. Southern states returned many of their old leaders and passed Black Codes to deprive the freedmen of many civil liberties, Congressional Republicans refused to seat legislators from those states and advanced legislation to overrule the Southern actions. Johnson vetoed their bills, and Congressional Republicans overrode him, setting a pattern for the remainder of his presidency.[1] opposed the Fourteenth Amendment which gave citizenship to former slaves. In 1866, he went on an unprecedented national tour promoting his executive policies, seeking to break Republican opposition.[2] the conflict grew between the branches of government, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act restricting Johnson's ability to fire Cabinet officials. He persisted in trying to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, but ended up being impeached by the House of Representatives and narrowly avoided conviction in the Senate. He did not win the 1868 Democratic presidential nomination and left office the following year. returned to Tennessee after his presidency and gained some vindication when he was elected to the Senate in 1875, making him the only former president to serve in the Senate. He died five months into his term. strong opposition to federally guaranteed rights for black Americans is widely criticized; he is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in American history. SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3 ; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1869-1877, President, Ulysses S. Grant, stabilized post-war economy, supported black vote right, crushed Ku Klux Klan
US President, 1869-1877, Ulysses S. Grant ; S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant; /ˈhaɪrəm juːˈlɪsiːz/ HY-rəm yoo-LIS-eez; April 27, 1822 – July 23, 1885) was an American military leader who served as the 18th president of the United States from 1869 to 1877. As president, Grant was an effective civil rights executive who created the Justice Department and worked with the Radical Republicans to protect African Americans during Reconstruction. As Commanding General, he led the Union Army to victory in the American Civil War in 1865 and thereafter briefly served as Secretary of War. in Ohio, Grant possessed an exceptional ability with horses, which served him well through his military career. He was admitted to West Point, graduated 21st in the class of 1843 and served with distinction in the Mexican–American War. In 1848, he married Julia Dent, and together they had four children. Grant abruptly resigned his army commission in 1854 and returned to his family, but lived in poverty for seven years. joined the Union Army after the Civil War broke out in 1861 and rose to prominence after winning several early Union victories on the Western Theater. In 1863 he led the Vicksburg campaign, which gained control of the Mississippi River. Abraham Lincoln promoted him to lieutenant general after his victory at Chattanooga. For thirteen months, Grant fought Robert E. Lee during the high-casualty Overland Campaign and at Petersburg. On April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox. A week later, Lincoln was assassinated and was succeeded by President Andrew Johnson, who promoted Grant to General of the Army in 1866. Grant openly broke with Johnson over Reconstruction policies; Grant used the Reconstruction Acts, which had been passed over Johnson's veto, to enforce civil rights for recently freed African Americans. war hero, drawn in by his sense of duty, Grant was unanimously nominated by the Republican Party and was elected president in 1868. president, Grant stabilized the post-war national economy, supported ratification of the 15th Amendment, and crushed the Ku Klux Klan. appointed African Americans and Jewish Americans to prominent federal offices. 1871, Grant created the first Civil Service Commission, advancing civil service more than any prior president. Liberal Republicans and Democrats united behind Grant's opponent in the presidential election of 1872, but Grant was handily re-elected. Native American policy was to assimilate Indians into the White culture; the Great Sioux War was fought during his term. foreign policy was mostly peaceful, without war, the Alabama claims against Great Britain skillfully resolved, but his prized Caribbean Dominican Republic annexation was rejected by the Senate. Grant administration is traditionally known for prevalent scandals, but modern scholarship has better appreciated Grant's appointed reformers and prosecutions. appointed reformers, such as John Brooks Henderson and David Dyer, who prosecuted the Whiskey Ring. Other reformers Grant appointed included Benjamin Bristow and Edwards Pierrepont, who served as Grant's anti-corruption team. Grant also prosecuted immoral Morman polygamists (1871) and abortionists (1873–1877). Panic of 1873 plunged the nation into a severe economic depression that allowed the Democrats to win the House majority. In the intensely disputed presidential election of 1876, Grant facilitated the approval by Congress of a peaceful compromise. his retirement, Grant was the first president to circumnavigate the world on his tour, dining with Queen Victoria and meeting many prominent foreign leaders. In 1880, Grant was unsuccessful in obtaining the Republican presidential nomination for a third term. In the final year of his life, facing severe financial reversals and dying of throat cancer, he wrote his memoirs, which proved to be a major critical and financial success. At the time of his death, he was memorialized as a symbol of national unity. Grant was a modern general and "a skillful leader who had a natural grasp of tactics and strategy". assessments of his presidency have improved over time; he was ranked 38th in 1994 and 1996 but ranked 21st in 2018 and 24th in 2021. Although critical of scandals and Grant's loyal defense of culprits, modern historians have emphasized his two-term presidential accomplishments. These included his protection of African American civil rights, prosecution of the Klan, innovative Native American policy, and the settlement of the Alabama claims. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Richard Upjohn of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE, ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; MARIA STEWART, PROPHETIC WITESS 1879, Commemorated December 17; HENRY BUDD, PRIEST, 1875, Commemorated December 22 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3 ; PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); JAMES LLOYD BRECK, Priest, Educator, and Missionary (2 April 1876); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); William Agustus Muhlenberg of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; SARAH JOSEPHA BUELL HALE, EDITOR and PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1879, Commemorated April 30; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1870-1883, Northern Pacific Railway - from Midwest to Bozeman Pass
Northern Pacific Railway; Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly forty million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km2) of land grants, which it used to raise money in Europe for construction. began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific when former President Ulysses S. Grant drove in the final "golden spike" in western Montana on September 8, 1883. railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the NP had an international branch to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land. Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the NP merged with other lines in 1970 to form the Burlington Northern Railroad, which in turn merged with the Santa Fe Railway to become the BNSF Railway in 1996. Map of NPR Land Grant, c1890 chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864, with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the Pacific, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking Washington and Oregon to the rest of the country.[1] granted the railroad a potential 60 million acres (243,000 km2) of land in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864.[1] It could not use all the land and in the end took just under 40 million acres.[2] Cooke takes control[edit] the next six years, backers of the road struggled to find financing. Though John Gregory Smith succeeded Perham as president on January 5, 1865, groundbreaking did not take place until February 15, 1870, at Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota. backing and promotions of famed financier Jay Cooke in the summer of 1870 brought the first real momentum to the company. The Minnetonka. Over the course of 1871, the Northern Pacific pushed westward from Minnesota into present-day North Dakota. Surveyors and construction crews had to maneuver through swamps, bogs, and tamarack forests. The difficult terrain and insufficient funding delayed by six months the construction phase in Minnesota.[3] NP also began building its line north from Kalama, Washington Territory, on the Columbia River outside of Portland, Oregon, towards Puget Sound. small construction engines were purchased, the Minnetonka, Itaska, Ottertail and St. Cloud, the first of which was shipped to Kalama by ship around Cape Horn. Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad completed construction of its 155-mile (249 km) line stretching from Saint Paul to Lake Superior at Duluth in 1870. It was leased to the Northern Pacific in 1876, and was eventually absorbed by the Northern Pacific. The North Coast Limited was the Northern Pacific's flagship train and the Northern Pacific itself was built along the trail first blazed by Lewis and Clark.[4] Preferred Shares of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company, issued 28. November 1881 Northern Pacific reached Fargo, Dakota Territory (N.D.), early in June 1872. The following year, in June 1873, the N.P. reached the shores of the Missouri River, at Edwinton (Bismarck) D.T. In the west, the track extended 25 miles (40 km) north from Kalama. Surveys were carried out in North Dakota protected by 600 troops under General Winfield Scott Hancock. Headquarters and shops were established in Brainerd, Minnesota, a town named for the President John Gregory Smith's wife Anna Elizabeth Brainerd. A severe stock market crash and financial collapse after 1873, led by the Credit Mobilier Scandal and the Union Pacific Railroad fraud, stopped further railroad building for twelve years. 1886, the company put down 164 miles (264 km) of main line across North Dakota, with an additional 45 miles (72 km) in Washington. November 1, General George Washington Cass became the third president of the company. Cass had been a vice-president and director of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and would lead the Northern Pacific through some of its most difficult times. on survey parties and construction crews by Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa warriors in North Dakota and Minnesota became so prevalent that the company received protection from units of the U.S. Army.[5] 1886, the Northern Pacific also opened colonization offices in Germany and Scandinavia, attracting farmers with cheap package transportation and purchase deals. The success of the NP was based on the abundant crops of wheat and other grains and the attraction to settlers of the Red River Valley along the Minnesota-North Dakota border between 1881 and 1890.[6] Northern Pacific reached Dakota Territory at Fargo in 1872, and began its career as one of the central factors in the economic growth of North Dakota. The climate, although very cold, was suitable for wheat, which was in high demand in the cities of the United States and Europe. Most of the settlers were German and Scandinavian immigrants who bought the land cheaply, and raised large families. They shipped huge quantities of wheat to Minneapolis, while buying all sorts of equipment and home supplies to be shipped in by rail.[7] NP used its federal land grants as security to borrow money to build its system.[8] federal government kept every other section of land, and gave it away free to homesteaders. first the railroad sold much of its holdings at low prices to land speculators in order to realize quick cash profits, and also to eliminate sizable annual tax bills. 1905 the railroad company's land policies changed, after it was judged a costly mistake to have sold much of the land at wholesale prices. better railroad service and improved methods of farming the Northern Pacific easily sold what had been heretofore "worthless" land directly to farmers at good prices. 1910 the railroad's holdings in North Dakota had been greatly reduced.[9][10] of 1873 and first bankruptcy[edit] 1873, Northern Pacific made impressive strides before a terrible stumble. Rails from the east reached the Missouri River on June 4. After several years of study, Tacoma, Washington, was selected as the road's western terminus on July 14, 1873. the previous three years the financial house of Jay Cooke and Company had been throwing money into the construction of the Northern Pacific. As with many western transcontinentals, the staggering costs of building a railroad into a vast wilderness had been drastically underestimated. Cooke had little success in marketing the bonds in Europe and overextended his house in meeting overdrafts of the mounting construction costs. Cooke overestimated his managerial skills and failed to appreciate the limits of a banker's ability to be also a promoter, and the danger of freezing his assets in the bonds of the Northern Pacific.[11] and Company went bankrupt on September 18, 1873. Soon the Panic of 1873 engulfed the United States, beginning an economic depression that ruined or nearly paralyzed newer railroads. Northern Pacific survived bankruptcy that year, due to austerity measures put in place by President Cass. In fact, working with last-minute loans from Director John C. Ainsworth of Portland, the Northern Pacific completed the line from Kalama to Tacoma (110 miles (180 km)) before the end of 1873. On December 16, the first steam train arrived in Tacoma. But in 1874 the company was moribund.[clarification needed] Pacific slipped into its first bankruptcy on June 30, 1875. Cass resigned to become receiver of the company, and Charles Barstow Wright became its fourth president. Frederick Billings, namesake of Billings, Montana, formulated a reorganization plan which was put into effect. 1874 to 1876, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer operating out of Forts Abraham Lincoln and Rice in Dakota Territory conducted expeditions to protect the railroad survey and construction crews in Dakota and Montana Territories.[citation needed] Billings and first reorganization[edit] 1877, construction resumed in a small way. Northern Pacific pushed a branch line southeast from Tacoma to Puyallup, Washington and on to the coal fields around Wilkeson, Washington. Much of the coal was destined for export through Tacoma to San Francisco, California, where it would be thrown into the fireboxes of Central Pacific Railroad steam engines. small amount of construction was one of the largest projects the company would undertake in the years between 1874 and 1880. That same year the company built a large shop complex at Edison, Washington (now part of south Tacoma). For many years the shops at Brainerd and Edison would carry out heavy repairs and build equipment for the railroad. May 24, 1879, Frederick H. Billings became the president of the company. Billings' tenure would be short but ferocious. Reorganization, bond sales, and improvement in the U.S. economy allowed Northern Pacific to strike out across the Missouri River by letting a contract to build 100 miles (160 km) of railroad west of the river. The railroad's new-found strength, however, would be seen as a threat in certain quarters. Henry Villard, Gold Creek, Gold Spike[edit] Yellowstone Park Line Brochure 1904 and Transcontinental stock owned by Henry Villard. journalist Henry Villard had raised capital for western railroads in Europe from 1871 to 1873. After returning to New York in 1874 he invested on behalf of his clients in railroads in Oregon. Through Villard's work, most of these lines became properties of the European creditors' holding company, the Oregon and Transcontinental Company. the lines held by the Oregon and Transcontinental, the most important was the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which ran east from Portland along the left bank of the Columbia River to a connection with the Union Pacific Railroad's Oregon Short Line at the confluence of the Columbia River and the Snake River near Wallula, Washington. a decade of his return, Villard was head of a transportation empire in the Pacific Northwest that had but one real competitor, the Northern Pacific. The Northern Pacific's completion threatened the holdings of Villard in the Northwest, and especially in Portland. Portland would become a second-class city if the Puget Sound ports at Tacoma and Seattle, Washington, were connected to the East by rail. who had been building a monopoly of river and rail transportation in Oregon for several years, now launched a daring raid. Using his European connections and a reputation for having "bested" Jay Gould in a battle for control of the Kansas Pacific years before, Villard solicited – and raised – $8,000,000 from his associates. This was his famous "Blind Pool," Villard's associates were not told what the money would be used for. In this case, the funds were used to purchase control of the Northern Pacific. a tough fight, Billings and his backers were forced to capitulate; he resigned the presidency June 9, 1881. Ashbel H. Barney, former President of Wells Fargo & Company, served briefly as interim caretaker of the railroad from June 19 to September 15, when Villard was elected president by the stockholders. For the next two years, Villard and the Northern Pacific rode the whirlwind. 1882, 360 miles (580 km) of main line and 368 miles (592 km) of branch line were completed, bringing totals to 1,347 miles (2,168 km) and 731 miles (1,176 km), respectively. October 10, 1882, the line from Wadena, Minnesota, to Fergus Falls, Minnesota, opened for service. The Missouri River was bridged with a million-dollar span on October 21, 1883. Until then, crossing of the Missouri had had to be managed with a ferry service for most of the year; in winter, when ice was thick enough, rails were laid across the river itself. Herman Haupt, another veteran of the Civil War and the Pennsylvania Railroad, organized the Northern Pacific Beneficial Association in 1881. A forerunner of the modern health maintenance organization, the NPBA ultimately established a series of four hospitals across the system in Saint Paul, Minnesota; Glendive, Montana; Missoula, Montana; and Tacoma, Washington, to care for employees, retirees, and their families. January 15, 1883, the first train reached Livingston, Montana, at the eastern foot of Bozeman Pass. Livingston, like Brainerd and South Tacoma before it, would grow to encompass a large backshop handling heavy repairs for the railroad. It would also mark the east–west dividing line on the Northern Pacific system. pushed hard for the completion of the Northern Pacific in 1883. His crews laid an average of a mile and half (2.4 km) of track each day. In early September, the line neared completion. celebrate, and to gain national publicity for investment opportunities in his region, Villard chartered four trains to carry guests from the East to Gold Creek in western Montana. No expense was spared and the list of dignitaries included Frederick Billings, Ulysses S. Grant, and Villard's in-laws, the family of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. On September 8, the Gold Spike was driven near Gold Creek.[12] to Puget Sound[edit] fall was swifter than his ascendancy. Like Jay Cooke, he was now consumed by the enormous costs of constructing the railroad. Street bears attacked the stock shortly after the Golden Spike, after the realization that the Northern Pacific was a very long road with very little business. himself suffered a nervous breakdown in the days after the driving of the Golden Spike, and he left the presidency of the Northern Pacific in January 1884. the presidency of the Northern Pacific was handed to a professional railroader, Robert Harris, former head of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. For the next four years, until the return of the Villard group, Harris worked at improving the property and ending its tangled relationship with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. the mid-1880s, the Northern Pacific pushed to reach Puget Sound directly, rather than by means of a roundabout route that followed the Columbia River. of the Cascade Mountains, carried out intermittently since the 1870s, began anew. Virgil Bogue, a veteran civil engineer, was sent to explore the Cascades again. On March 19, 1881, he discovered Stampede Pass. 1883, John W. Sprague, the head of the new Pacific Division, drove the Golden Spike to mark the beginning of the railroad from what would become Kalama, Washington. He resigned a months later due to impaired health. 1884, after the departure of Villard, the Northern Pacific began building toward Stampede Pass from Wallula in the east and the area of Wilkeson in the west. By the end of the year, rails had reached Yakima, Washington in the east. A 77-mile (124 km) gap remained in 1886. January of that year, Nelson Bennett was given a contract to construct a 9,850-foot (1.866 mi; 3.00 km) tunnel under Stampede Pass. The contract specified a short amount of time for completion, and a large penalty if the deadline were missed. While crews worked on the tunnel, the railroad built a temporary switchback route across the pass. With numerous timber trestles and grades which approached six percent, the temporary line required two M class 2-10-0s — the two largest locomotives in the world (at that time) — to handle a tiny five-car train. On May 3, 1888, crews holed through the tunnel, and on May 27 the first train passed through directly to Puget Sound. and the Panic of 1893[edit] this success, the Northern Pacific, like many U.S. roads, was living on borrowed time. From 1887 until 1893, Henry Villard returned to the board of directors. Though offered the presidency, he refused. An associate of Villard dating back to his time on the Kansas Pacific, Thomas Fletcher Oakes, assumed the presidency on September 20, 1888. an effort to garner business, Oakes pursued an aggressive policy of branch line expansion. addition, the Northern Pacific experienced the first competition in the form of James Jerome Hill and his Great Northern Railway. The Great Northern, like the Northern Pacific before it, was pushing west from the Twin Cities towards Puget Sound, and would be completed in 1893. sparse traffic, and the Panic of 1893 sounded the death knell for the Northern Pacific and Villard's interest in railroading. The company slipped into its second bankruptcy on October 20, 1893. Oakes was named receiver and Brayton Ives, a former chairman of the New York Stock Exchange, became president. labor dispute[edit] 1894, the 10th Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army was involved in protecting property of the Northern Pacific Railroad from striking workers.[13] Villard to Morganization[edit] the next three years, the Villard-Oakes interests and the Ives interest feuded for control of the Northern Pacific. Oakes was eventually forced out as receiver, but not before three separate courts were claiming jurisdiction over the Northern Pacific's bankruptcy. Things came to a head in 1896, when first Edward Dean Adams was appointed president, then less than two months later, Edwin Winter. the task of straightening out the muddle of the Northern Pacific was turned over to J. P. Morgan. Morganization of the Northern Pacific, a process which befell many U.S. roads in the wake of the Panic of 1893, was handed to Morgan lieutenant Charles Henry Coster. The new president, beginning September 1, 1897, was Charles Sanger Mellen.[14] James J. Hill had purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific during the troubled days of 1896, Coster and Mellen would advocate, and follow, a staunchly independent line for the Northern Pacific for the next four years. Only the early death of Coster from overwork, and the promotion of Mellen to head the Morgan-controlled New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1903, would bring the Northern Pacific closer to the orbit of James J. Hill.[15] Map of Northern Pacific's route circa 1900. Hill, Harriman and the Northern Pacific Corner[edit] the late 1880s, the Villard regime, in another one of its costly missteps, attempted to stretch the Northern Pacific from the Twin Cities to the all-important rail hub of Chicago, Illinois. A costly project was begun in creating a union station and terminal facilities for a Northern Pacific which had yet to arrive. than build directly down to Chicago, perhaps following the Mississippi River as the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy had done, Villard chose to lease the Wisconsin Central. Some backers of the Wisconsin Central had long associations with Villard, and an expensive lease was worked out between the two companies which was only undone by the Northern Pacific's second bankruptcy. ultimate result was that the Northern Pacific was left without a direct connection to Chicago, the primary interchange point for most of the large U.S. railroads. Fortunately, the Northern Pacific was not alone. James J. Hill, controller of the Great Northern Railway, which was completed between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound in 1893, also lacked a direct connection to Chicago. Hill went looking for a road with an existing route between the Twin Cities and Chicago which could be rolled into his holdings and give him a stable path to that important interchange. the same time, E. H. Harriman, head of the Union Pacific Railroad, was also looking for a road which could connect his company to Chicago. The road both Harriman and Hill looked at was the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. Harriman, the Burlington was a road which paralleled much of his own, and offered tantalizing direct access to Chicago. For Hill as well, there was the possibility of a high-speed link directly with Chicago. Though the Burlington did not parallel the Great Northern or the Northern Pacific, it would give them a powerful railroad in the central West. was the first to approach the Burlington's aging leader, the irascible Charles Elliott Perkins. The price for control of the Burlington, as set by Perkins, was $200 a share, more than Harriman was willing to pay. met the price, and control of the Burlington was divided equally at about 48.5 percent each between the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific. to be outdone, Harriman now came up with a crafty plan: Buy a controlling interest in the Northern Pacific and use its power on the Burlington to place friendly directors upon its board. On May 3, 1901, Harriman began his stock raid which would become known as the Northern Pacific Corner. the end of the day he was short just 40,000 shares of common stock. Harriman placed an order to cover this, but was overridden by his broker, Jacob Schiff, of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. on the other hand, reached the vacationing Morgan in Italy and managed to place an order for 150,000 shares of common stock. Though Harriman might be able to control the preferred stock, Hill knew the company bylaws allowed for the holders of the common stock to vote to retire the preferred. three days the Harriman-Hill imbroglio managed to wreak havoc on the stock market. Northern Pacific stock was quoted at $150 a share on May 6, and is reported to have traded as much as $1,000 a share behind the scenes. Harriman and Hill now worked to settle the issue for brokers to avoid panic. Hill, for his part, attempted to avoid future stock raids by placing his holdings in the Northern Securities Company, a move which would be undone by the Supreme Court in 1904 under the auspices of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. was not immune either; he was forced to break up his holdings in the Union Pacific Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad a few years later. Hill to Howard Elliott[edit] 1903, Hill finally got his way with the House of Morgan. Howard Elliott, another veteran of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, became president of the Northern Pacific on October 23. Elliott was a relative of the Burlington's crusty chieftain Charles Elliott Perkins, and more distantly the Burlington's great backer, John Murray Forbes. He had spent 20 years in the trenches of Midwest railroading, where rebates, pooling, expansion and rate wars had brought ruinous competition. Having seen the effects of having multiple railroads attempt to serve the same destination, he was very much in tune with James J. Hill's philosophy of "community of interest," a loose affiliation or collusion among roads in an attempt to avoid duplicating routes, rate wars, weak finances and ultimately bankruptcies and reorganizations. would be left to make peace with the Hill-controlled Great Northern; the Harriman-controlled Union Pacific; and, between 1907 and 1909, the last of the northern transcontinentals, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, more commonly known as the Milwaukee Road. A Northern Pacific train travels over Bozeman Pass in June 1939 the twentieth century[edit] the turn of the century the Northern Pacific had a record of steady improvement. Together with the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific also gained control of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, gaining important access to Chicago, the central Middle West and Texas, as well as the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway, an important route through eastern and southern Washington. physical plant was upgraded continuously, with double-tracking in key areas, and automatic block signaling along its entire main line. This in turn gave way to centralized traffic control, microwave and radio communications as time progressed.[citation needed] Northern Pacific maintained and continuously upgraded its equipment and service. The road helped pioneer the 4-8-4 Northern type steam engine and the 2-8-8-4 Yellowstone. was among the first railroads in the country to adopt diesel power beginning with General Motors’ FTs in 1944.[citation needed] Despite this, with cheap (albeit low-quality) coal reserves in Wyoming it was among the last US railroads to complete dieselization, in 1960. NP depot at Wallace, Idaho, 2007 Northern Pacific's premier passenger train, the North Coast Limited was among the safest and finest in the nation, suffering only one passenger fatality in nearly seventy years of operation.[citation needed] 1900, most of the remaining land-grant holdings were located west of Montana, in the "western district." railroad still hoped to sell this land, both to provide operating funds and to populate the region to provide new markets to sustain the railroad. Nearly all the good farm land had been sold, leaving large tracts of grazing land or timber. The grazing acreage was poor quality, and difficult to sell. However, the timber lands were of high quality; much of these were sold to Frederick Weyerhaeuser.[16] of the Hill Lines[edit] later years, Louis W. Menk became president of the Northern Pacific, and then he brought it together with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 2, 1970, to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. The merger was allowed despite a challenge in the Supreme Court, essentially reversing the outcome of the 1904 Northern Securities ruling. A 900 mi (1,400 km) portion of the former Northern Pacific mainline in Montana was spun off and is now operated by Montana Rail Link. Revenue freight traffic, in millions of net ton-miles (including M&I, G&P) Year Traffic 1925 6852 1933 3600 1944 14679 1960 11360 1967 13629 Source: ICC annual reports 1949, the Northern Pacific's headquarters in Saint Paul presided over a system of 6,889 miles (11,087 km), which 2,831 miles (4,556 km) of main line, 4,057 miles (6,529 km) of branch line under seven operating divisions. Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches. Paul[edit] in St. Paul, Minnesota in the company's Railroad and Bank Building, the St. Paul Division's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches. in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches. in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches. Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana. in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches. in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17] the railroad expanded, immigrants, families, and single men moved to the Pacific Northwest. Tacoma's population grew rapidly: in 1880 there were 1,098 residents, and in 1889 there were 36,000.[18] service[edit] line encouraged people to make their homes in the Pacific Northwest by having an "immigration agent" and offering special excursion trains for prospective buyers during the winter months. North Coast Limited was the premier passenger train operated by the Northern Pacific Railway between Chicago and Seattle via Butte, Montana and Homestake Pass. It commenced service on April 29, 1900, served briefly as a Burlington Northern train after the merger on March 2, 1970, and ceased operation on April 30, 1971, the day before Amtrak began service. The Chicago Union Station to Saint Paul leg of the train's route was operated by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad along its Mississippi River mainline through Wisconsin. Northern Pacific's secondary transcontinental passenger train was the Alaskan, until it was replaced by the Mainstreeter on November 16, 1952.[19][page needed] Mainstreeter, which operated via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, continued in service through the Burlington Northern merger until Amtrak Day (May 1, 1971). It had been reduced to a Saint Paul to Seattle train after the last run of the former Burlington Route Black Hawk on April 12–13, 1970. Northern Pacific also participated in the Coast Pool Train service between Portland and Seattle with the Great Northern Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. NP and GN Coast Pool Trains lasted until Amtrak. were several other passenger trains which were discontinued before the Burlington Northern merger. These included: Saint Paul to International Falls, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Duluth, Minnesota (which at one time was also a pool operation, with Great Northern Railway and the Soo Line); Duluth to Staples, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Jamestown, North Dakota (the last remnant of the Alaskan); Fargo, North Dakota to Winnipeg, Manitoba; The Route of "the Great Big Baked Potato"[edit] Actress Lillian Russell and other Hollywood stars were hired to promote the railroad's potatoes. comic postcard circa 1910 to 1920 promoting "The Great Big Baked Potato". Hazen Titus was appointed as the line's dining car superintendent in 1908. He learned that Yakima Valley farmers were unable to sell their potato crops because the potatoes they were growing were simply too large; they fed them to the hogs. Titus learned that a single potato could weigh from two to five pounds, but that smaller potatoes were preferred by the end buyers of the vegetable because many people considered large potatoes inedible due to their thick, rough skin.[20] and his staff discovered the "inedible" potatoes were delicious after baking in a slow oven. He contracted to purchase as many potatoes as the farmers could produce that were more than two pounds in weight. Soon after the first delivery of "Netted Gem Bakers", they were offered to diners on the North Coast Limited beginning in early 1909. Word of the line's specialty offering traveled quickly, and before long it was using "the Great Big Baked Potato" as a slogan to promote the railroad's passenger service. Hollywood stars were hired to promote it.[21] When an addition was built for the Northern Pacific's Seattle commissary in 1914, a Railway Age reporter wrote, "A large trade mark, in the shape of a baked potato, 40 ft. long and 18 ft. in diameter, surmounts the roof. The potato is electric lighted and its eyes, through the electric mechanism, are made to wink constantly. A cube of butter thrust into its split top glows intermittently." Premiums such as postcards, letter openers, and spoons were also produced to promote "The Route of the Great Big Baked Potato"; the slogan served the Northern Pacific for about 50 years.[20]

Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota
Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota;

Kalama, Washington (just south of Longview)
Kalama, Washington;

NP St Paul to Deluth thru White Bear Lake, Lake Superior Division, NP Railroad
White Bear Lake
Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches.

Saint Paul, MN, St Paul Division, NP Railroad, to Staples and Dillworth from White Bear Lake
Saint Paul, Minnesota; Paul[edit] in St. Paul, Minnesota in the company's Railroad and Bank Building, the St. Paul Division's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches.

St Paul Division, NP Railroad, St Paul to Staples and Dillman near Fargo

Duluth, Minnesota
Duluth, Minnesota;

Red River Valley
Red River Valley;

Red River

Wadena, Minnesota

Detroit Lakes

Lake Park

Winnipeg Junction

Dillworth, MN
in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.

Mandan, ND
in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.
in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches.

NP Railroad Fargo and Yellowstone River Divisions - Dillworth, MN to Livingston, MT
NP Railroad Yellowstone River Division
in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.
in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches.

Fargo, North Dakota
Fargo, North Dakota; in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches.

Bismarck, North Dakota (Missouri River)
Bismarck, North Dakota;

Glendive, Montana, Northern Pacific Beneficial Association (NPBA) Hospital
Glendive, Montana;

Yellowstone River

Billings, MT

Big Timber, MT

Livingston, Montana, large backshop for NP Repairs
Livingston, Montana; Rocky Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.

Fergus Falls, Minnesota
Fergus Falls, Minnesota;

Bozeman Pass
Bozeman Pass;

Bozeman, MT

Missouri River

Deluth, MN Deluth Division of Northern Pacific RWY, to Ashland, to Staples, to White Bear Lake, MN
Deluth, MN
Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches.

Ashland, WN, Lake Superior Division
Ashland, WN
Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches.

Brainerd, Minnesota, NP Headquarters and Shops, Crow Wing County
Brainerd, Minnesota;

Staples, MN, Lake Superior Division, NP Railroad
Staples, MN

Deluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Lake Superior Division, NP Railroad, HWY 2

Deluth to Staples, MN thru Brainerd, NP Railroad Headquarters. Lake Superior Division

White Bear Lake, MN

Deluth to White Bear Lake, MN, and Saint Paul, Lake Superior Division, NP Railroad

St Croix River (WI MN Border)

US, 1872-1922, JULIA CHESTER EMERY, New York City, Womens Auxiliary of the Board of Missions, United Thank Offering UTO
US, 1872-1922, JULIA CHESTER EMERY, New York City, Womens Auxiliary of the Board of Missions, United Thank Offering UTO; New York City; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922) ; father was a New England sea captain. Two of her brothers became priests. One sister, Helen, cared for another sister who was ill, and made a project of providing hospitality in her New York City home for missionaries on leave. Another sister, Mary, was National Secretary of the Women's Auxiliary of the Board of Missions for its first four years, from 1872 to 1876. At this point, Julia took over, and was National Secretary of the Auxiliary for forty years, from 1876 to 1916. visited every diocese in the United States, co-ordinating and encouraging work in support of missions. traveled to London as a delegate to the Pan-Anglican Congress. traveled to Japan, inland China, Hong Kong, and the Philippines to advance missionary work there, and to be able to report on it to the Episcopal women in the United States. was Julia who invented the United Thank Offering (UTO). This works (or used to work -- my political instincts tell me that not everyone today would be comfortable with the original arrangement) by giving each woman a small box with a slit in the top (a cardboard piggy bank), and encouraging her to drop a small contribution into it whenever she feels thankful about something. Once a year, the women of the parish present these at the Sunday service, and the money is sent to national headquarters to be used for missions. by James Kiefer

US, 1874-1935, JAMES O S HUNTINGTON, Boston, MA, religious order founder, lower ease side, labor union movement, Henry George, land tax,
US, 1874-1935, JAMES O S HUNTINGTON, Boston, MA, religious order founder, lower ease side, labor union movement, Henry George, land tax; Boston; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935) ; Huntington was born in Boston in 1854, studied at Harvard and at St Andrew's Divinity School in Syracuse, was ordained to the priesthood around 1880, and served a working-class congregation. a few years, he felt called to found a monastic order for priests of the Episcopal Church, and with two companions he began working among poor immigrants on New York's Lower East Side. a slow start, he with others became the Order of the Holy Cross, which now has a monastery in West Park, New York, and priests involved in parish work and social work scattered elsewhere. was Superior of the order for several non-consecutive terms, but devoted himself chiefly to preaching, teaching, and counselling until his death on 28 June 1935. this is the feast of Irenaeus of Lyons, he is commemorated on the anniversary of the receiving of his monastic vows by the Bishop of New York on 25 November 1884. the course of his work, he became involved in the labor-union movement and the land-tax movement. The latter of these may require some explanation. (Those who have no interest in proposals for social reform may wish to skip to the closing prayer.) George, author of Progress and Poverty, argued that, while some forms of wealth are produced by human activity, and are rightly the property of the producers (or those who have obtained them from the previous owners by voluntary gift or exchange), land and natural resources are bestowed by God on the human race, and that every one of the N inhabitants of the earth has a claim to 1/Nth of the coal beds, 1/Nth of the oil wells, 1/Nth of the mines, and 1/Nth of the fertile soil. God wills a society where everyone may sit in peace under his own vine and his own fig tree. The Law of Moses undertook to implement this by making the ownership of land hereditary, with a man's land divided among his sons (or, in the absence of sons, his daughters), and prohibiting the permanent sale of land. (See Leviticus 25:13-17,23.) The most a man might do with his land is sell the use of it until the next Jubilee year, an amnesty declared once every fifty years, when all debts were cancelled and all land returned to its hereditary owner. Henry George's proposed implementation is to tax all land at about 99.99% of its rental value, leaving the owner of record enough to cover his bookkeeping expenses. The resulting revenues would be divided equally among the natural owners of the land, viz. the people of the country, with everyone receiving a dividend check regularly for the use of his share of the earth (here I am anticipating what I think George would have suggested if he had written in the 1990's rather than the 1870's). This procedure would have the effect of making the sale price of a piece of land, not including the price of buildings and other improvements on it, practically zero. The cost of being a landholder would be, not the original sale price, but the tax, equivalent to rent. A man who chose to hold his "fair share," or 1/Nth of all the land, would pay a land tax about equal to his dividend check, and so would break even. By 1/Nth of the land is meant land with a value equal to 1/Nth of the value of all the land in the country. Naturally, an acre in the business district of a great city would be worth as much as many square miles in the open country. Some would prefer to hold more than one N'th of the land and pay for the privilege. Some would prefer to hold less land, or no land at all, and get a small annual check representing the dividend on their inheritance from their father Adam. Note that, at least for the able-bodied, this solves the problem of poverty at a stroke. If the total land and total labor of the world are enough to feed and clothe the existing population, then 1/Nth of the land and 1/Nth of the labor are enough to feed and clothe 1/Nth of the population. A family of 4 occupying 4/Nths of the land (which is what their dividend checks will enable them to pay the tax on) will find that their labor applied to that land is enough to enable them to feed and clothe themselves. Of course, they may prefer to apply their labor elsewhere more profitably, but the situation from which we start is one in which everyone has his own plot of ground from which to wrest a living by the strength of his own back, and any deviation from this is the result of voluntary exchanges agreed to by the parties directly involved, who judge themselves to be better off as the result of the exchanges. Some readers may think this a very radical proposal. In fact, it is extremely conservative, in the sense of being in agreement with historic ideas about land ownership as opposed to ownership of, say, tools or vehicles or gold or domestic animals or other movables. The laws of English-speaking countries uniformly distinguish between real property (land) and personal property (everything else). In this context, "real" is not the opposite of "imaginary." It is a form of the word "royal," and means that the ultimate owner of the land is the king, as symbol of the people. Note that English-derived law does not recognize "landowners." The term is "landholders." The concept of eminent domain is that the landholder may be forced to surrender his landholdings to the government for a public purpose. Historically, eminent domain does not apply to property other than land, although complications arise when there are buildings on the land that is being seized. I will mention in passing that the proposals of Henry George have attracted support from persons as diverse as Felix Morley, Aldous Huxley, Woodrow Wilson, Helen Keller, Winston Churchill, Leo Tolstoy, William F Buckley Jr, and Sun Yat-sen. To the Five Nobel Prizes authorized by Alfred Nobel himself there has been added a sixth, in Economics, and the Henry George Foundation claims eight of the Economics Laureates as supporters, in whole or in part, of the proposals of Henry George (Paul Samuelson, 1970; Milton Friedman, 1976; Herbert A Simon, 1978; James Tobin, 1981; Franco Modigliani, 1985; James M Buchanan, 1986; Robert M Solow, 1987; William S Vickrey, 1996). The immediate concrete proposal favored by most Georgists today is that cities shall tax land within their boundaries at a higher rate than they tax buildings and other improvements on the land. (In case anyone is about to ask, "How can we possibly distinguish between the value of the land and the value of the buildings on it?" let me assure you that real estate assessors do it all the time. It is standard practice to make the two assessments separately, and a parcel of land in the business district of a large city very often has a different owner from the building on it.) Many cities have moved to a system of taxing land more heavily than improvements, and most have been pleased with the results, finding that landholders are more likely to use their land productively -- to their own benefit and that of the public -- if their taxes do not automatically go up when they improve their land by constructing or maintaining buildings on it. An advantage of this proposal in the eyes of many is that it is a Fabian proposal, "evolution, not revolution," that it is incremental and reversible. If a city or other jurisdiction does not like the results of a two-level tax system, it can repeal the arrangement or reduce the difference in levels with no great upheaval. It is not like some other proposals of the form, "Distribute all wealth justly, and make me absolute dictator of the world so that I can supervise the distribution, and if it doesn't work, I promise to resign." The problem is that absolute dictators seldom resign. For those who wish to inquire further, I recommend reading the book Progress and Poverty, by Henry George. It is available from the Robert Schalkenbach Foundation or from your local bookstore or library. It should be on every list of Great Books of the Western World, or of books that every educated person is assumed to have read. Ask for their catalog, and make a similar request of the Henry George Foundation of America, 2000 Century Plaza, Suite 238, Columbia, MD 21044-3210 (Tel 1-410-740-1177). I repeat, this is not an argument for a political or economic proposal, but simply background material on the founder of a religious order. You did not expect me to tell you that James Huntington was a disciple of Henry George and leave you wondering who Henry George was, did you? by James Kiefer

US, 1875-1890, HENRY WINTER SYLE, Hartford, CT, deaf f early age, became first deaf ordained, estab congregation f deaf 1888
US, 1875-1890, Henry Winter Syle, Hartford, CT (Connecticut River 24), deaf from early age, became first deaf ordained, estab congregation for deaf 1888, died 1890; Hartford, Connecticut; Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Henry Winter Syle of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE, PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890) ; Gallaudet was born in 1822, in Hartford, Connecticut. mother, Sophia was deaf, and his father, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, was the founder of the West Hartford School for the deaf, which was the principal institution for the education of the deaf in America from 1806 to 1857 (the year of the founding of Gallaudet College in Washington, DC). father had intended to become a priest, but had become an educator of the deaf instead. son also intended to seek ordination, but was persuaded by his father to work for a while first as a teacher of the deaf. did, and so met and married Miss Elizabeth Budd, who was deaf. was ordained in 1851, and the next year established St. Ann's Church in New York, especially for deaf persons, with services primarily in sign language. a result of his work, congregations for the deaf were established in many cities. (Alternatively, some congregations that are mostly hearing will have someone standing near the front and signing the service for the benefit of deaf parishioners.) died 27 August 1902. Photo of Henry Winter Syle (Photo courtesy Episcopal Conference of the Deaf) of Gallaudet's students and parishioners was Henry Winter Syle, deaf from an early age, who had attended Trinity College (Hartford, Conn), St John's (Cambridge, England), and Yale. encouraged him to become a priest, and in 1876 he became the first deaf person to be ordained by the Episcopal Church in the United States. He established a congregation for the deaf in 1888, and died 6 January 1890. HW Syle signature by James Kiefer

US, 1877-1881, President, Rutherford B. Hayes, abolitionist, electoral college win, compromise of 77 ends reconstruction
US President, 1877-1881, Rutherford B. Hayes; Birchard Hayes (October 4, 1822 – January 17, 1893) was an American politician and attorney who served as the 19th president of the United States from 1877 to 1881, after serving in the U.S. House of Representatives and as governor of Ohio. the U.S. Civil War, Hayes was a lawyer and staunch abolitionist who defended refugee slaves in court proceedings. He served in the Union Army and the House of Representatives before assuming the presidency.[1] presidency represents a turning point in U.S. history, as historians consider it the formal end of Reconstruction. To placate the Democrats, Hayes ended all federal efforts to bring racial equality to the South.[2] an attorney in Ohio, Hayes served as city solicitor of Cincinnati from 1858 to 1861. At the start of the Civil War, he left a fledgling political career to join the Union Army as an officer. Hayes was wounded five times, most seriously at the Battle of South Mountain in 1862. He earned a reputation for bravery in combat and was promoted to brevet major general. After the war, he served in Congress from 1865 to 1867 as a Republican. Hayes left Congress to run for governor of Ohio and was elected to two consecutive terms, from 1868 to 1872. He served half of a third two-year term from 1876 to 1877 before his swearing-in as president. 1877, the Electoral College made Hayes president after the 1876 United States presidential election, one of the most contentious in U.S. history. He lost the popular vote to Democrat Samuel J. Tilden, but narrowly won an intensely disputed electoral-college vote after a Congressional commission awarded him 20 contested electoral votes in the Compromise of 1877. The election was resolved with a backroom deal whereby the Democrats acquiesced to Hayes's election on the single condition that he withdraw direct federal support for Reconstruction in the former Confederate states. believed in meritocratic government and in equal treatment without regard to wealth, social standing or race. He used the military to resolve the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, which remains the deadliest confrontation between striking workers and strikebreakers in US history. As president, Hayes implemented modest civil-service reforms that laid the groundwork for further reform in the 1880s and 1890s. He vetoed the Bland–Allison Act of 1878, which put silver money into circulation and raised nominal prices; Hayes saw maintenance of the gold standard as essential to economic recovery. His policy toward western Indians anticipated the assimilationist program of the Dawes Act of 1887. kept his pledge not to run for reelection, retired to his home in Ohio, and became an advocate of social and educational reform. Biographer Ari Hoogenboom has written that Hayes's greatest achievement was to restore popular faith in the presidency and to reverse the deterioration of executive power that had established itself after Abraham Lincoln's assassination in 1865. Supporters have praised his commitment to civil-service reform. His critics deride his leniency toward the former Confederate states and his withdrawal of federal support for African Americans' voting and civil rights.[3] Historians and scholars generally rank Hayes as an average to slightly below-average president.[4][5] WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; CONSTANCE AND HER COMPANIONS, THE MARTYRS OF MEMPHIS (9 SEP 1878) ; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); KING KAMEHAMEHA AND QUEEN EMMA OF HAWAII , (28 NOV 1864); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); JAMES DE KOVEN, PRIEST (22 MAR 1879); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; JACKSON KEMPER, BISHOP, MISSIONARY (24 MAY 1870) ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1880-1940, GREGORIO AGLIPAY, Illocos Sur, Luzon, Philippines, communist founder of Philippine Independent Church
Philipines, 1880-1940, GREGORIO AGLIPAY, Illocos Sur, Northern Luzon, Philippines, communist founder of Philipine Independent Church; Illocos Sur, Philippines; GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; Labayan Aglipay (May 8, 1860 – September 1, 1940) the first Filipino Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church. was an activist Catholic priest from Ilocos Norte who, despite his intercession and defense of some of the Spanish Catholic clergy from liberal-nationalist Filipino revolutionaries, was excommunicated by the Vatican for inciting rebellion within the Filipino clergy. the brief interlude between independence from the Spanish and the subsequent reoccupation by the Americans, Isabelo de los Reyes (also known as Don Belong) and Aglipay reformed the Filipino Catholic clergy into the Philippine Independent Church, officially established in 1902. at Wikipedia) for inciting patriotic rebellion among the Filipino clergy, he was also a political activist who became acquainted with Isabelo de los Reyes, who would start an Independent Christian Filipino Church named after Aglipay in 1902. was previously excommunicated by Archbishop Bernardino Norzaleda y Villa of Manila in May 1899, upon the expressed permission of Pope Leo XIII. later joined Freemasonry in May 1918, a society excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church. later married Pilar Jamias y Ver from Sarrat, Ilocos Norte in 1939 and then died one year later. Followers of Aglipay through the church colloquially sometimes refer to their membership as Aglipayans. life in Batac, Ilocos Norte, Aglipay was an orphan who grew up in the tobacco fields in the last volatile decades of the Spanish occupation of the Philippines. bore deep grievances against the colonial Spanish government of the islands, stemming from abuses within the agricultural system. at fourteen when a tobacco-picking worker for not meeting his tobacco quota, later moved to the capital of Manila to study law under the private tutelage of Julian Carpio.[1] two years of study under Carpio, Aglipay continued his studies at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran and at the University of Santo Tomas. obtaining his degree, he then entered the seminary in Ilocos Sur in 1883 and was ordained to the priesthood seven years later. began a career as an assistant priest in various parishes around the main northern island of Luzon. in Victoria, Tarlac, Aglipay gave aid to the revolutionaries and employed thirty carpenters who in reality were revolutionists in touch with the Katipunan group. Despite being a priest, Aglipay, like other revolutionaries, joined Freemasonry.[2] Revolution 1896, the Katipunan was led by the Supremo, Andrés Bonifacio. Bernardino Nozaleda asked Aglipay to confront the revolutionary leaders, offering them a level of autonomy in the future for the Philippines if they would end the rebellion. Aguinaldo, in turn, sent Colonel Luciano San Miguel to Aglipay with the intention of getting him to join the rebellion. the course of Aglipay's journey north, the Philippine–American War started. –American War Aglipay returned to Manila and discovered that the Americans had attacked, he joined the revolution. 20 October 1898, Gen. Aguinaldo appointed Aglipay Military Vicar General of the revolutionaries. Aglipay interpreted this as making him Ecclesiastical Superior to all Filipino priests who, as such, should all be appointed Military Chaplains for the duration of the war.[3] which broke out between the U.S. and Filipino forces on February 4, 1899 prompted Aglipay to withdraw to Ilocos Norte to organize an armed resistance. 29 April 1899, Aglipay was excommunicated for "usurpation of ecclesiastical jurisdiction.[4] the war the end of the war in 1902, Isabelo de los Reyes was working towards the formation of a national church, that is independent of Rome. 3 August he suggested that Aglipay be its first bishop. a devout Catholic at the time, was reluctant, but accepted de los Reyes' offer to establish an independent church. 18 January 1903, Aglipay was appointed Supreme Bishop of the "Philippine Independent Church". Supreme Bishop he allied himself with the nationalist and most radical political parties during his time like the Sakdalistas and later on even with the Socialist and Communist Parties.[4] the theological discussions while visiting other churches while travelling abroad, Aglipay rejected the belief in the Trinity, becoming theologically accepting of the main Unitarian belief however, his own church refused to accept his amended theology. unitarian and progressive theological ideas were evident in his "novena", "Pagsisiyam sa Birhen sa Balintawak", 1925[5] and its English translation, "Novenary of the Motherland", 1926.[6] Bishop Gregorio Aglipay bust (Samal, Bataan, "Iglesia Filipina Independiente" (Philippine Independent Church). life ran for elections as President of the Commonwealth along with the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas Norberto Nabong in a joined Republican-Communist Party ticket in 1935,[4] lost to Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña of the Nacionalista Party. married D. Pilar Jamias year in 1939 since his church permits married clergy, but Aglipay died the following year on 1 September 1940. is honored with a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States on 5 September.

US, 1881-1885, President, Chester A. Arthur, Easterner, VP, Civil Service R, US Navy, failed to spend surplus, retired
US President, 1881-1885, Chester A. Arthur; Alan Arthur (October 5, 1829 – November 18, 1886) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 21st president of the United States from 1881 to 1885. Previously the 20th vice president, he succeeded to the presidency upon the death of President James A. Garfield in September 1881, two months after Garfield was shot by an assassin. was born in Fairfield, Vermont, grew up in upstate New York and practiced law in New York City. He served as quartermaster general of the New York Militia during the American Civil War. the war, he devoted more time to New York Republican politics and quickly rose in Senator Roscoe Conkling's political organization. Ulysses S. Grant appointed him to the post of Collector of the Port of New York in 1871, and he was an important supporter of Conkling and the Stalwart faction of the Republican Party. 1878, President Rutherford B. Hayes fired Arthur as part of a plan to reform the federal patronage system in New York. U.S Representative James Garfield won the Republican nomination for president in 1880, Arthur was nominated for vice president to balance the successful ticket as an Eastern Stalwart. Four months into his term, an assassin shot Garfield, who died 11 weeks later. Arthur then assumed the presidency. the outset, Arthur struggled to overcome a negative reputation as a Stalwart and product of Conkling's organization. the surprise of reformers, he advocated and enforced the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. He presided over the rebirth of the US Navy, but he was criticized for failing to alleviate the federal budget surplus which had been accumulating since the end of the Civil War. vetoed the first version of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, arguing that its twenty-year ban on Chinese immigrants to the United States violated the Burlingame Treaty, but he signed a second version, which included a ten-year ban.[2] from poor health, Arthur made only a limited effort to secure the Republican Party's nomination in 1884, and he retired at the end of his term. Journalist Alexander McClure wrote, "No man ever entered the Presidency so profoundly and widely distrusted as Chester Alan Arthur, and no one ever retired ... more generally respected, alike by political friend and foe."[3] Arthur's failing health and political temperament combined to make his administration less active than a modern presidency, yet he earned praise among contemporaries for his solid performance in office. The New York World summed up Arthur's presidency at his death in 1886: "No duty was neglected in his administration, and no adventurous project alarmed the nation."[4] Mark Twain wrote of him, "It would be hard indeed to better President Arthur's administration."[5] Despite this, modern historians generally rank Arthur as a mediocre president, as well as the least memorable. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); PRUDENCE CRANDALL, TEACHER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, 3 Sept. 1890; GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; New Martyr Archpriest Vasily Martysz, Commemorated on May 4; HARRIET STARR CANNON, RELIGIOUS, 1896, Commemorated May 7; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1881-1934, FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, Holmsville, MS and New Orleans, LA
Holmsville, Mississippi; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER (30 December 1934) ; Joseph-Gaudet (1861- December 1934), prison reform worker and educator, was born in a log cabin in Holmesville, Mississippi of African American and Native American descent. was raised by her grandparents. Later she went to live with a brother in New Orleans where she attended school and Straight College. early, she dedicated her life to prison reform. in 1894 she held prayer meetings, wrote letters, delivered messages, and secured clothing for black prisoners, and later for white prisoners as well. dedication to prisoners and prison reform won her the respect of prison officials, city authorities, the governor, and the Prison Reform Association. delegate to the Women’s Christian Temperance Union international convention in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1900, she worked for the reform of young blacks arrested for misdemeanor or vagrancy. was the first woman to support juvenile offenders in Louisiana, and her efforts helped found the juvenile court. eventually purchased a farm and founded the Gaudet Normal and Industrial School. The school, which eventually expanded to 105 acres and numerous buildings, also served as a boarding school for children with working mothers. served as principal of the school until 1921 when she donated the school to the Episcopal Church of Lousiana. Though the school closed in 1950, the Gaudet Episcopal Home opened in the same location four years later to serve African American children ages four to sixteen. The endowment fund currently supports St. Luke’s Community Center on North Dorgenois Street, where a hall honors Frances Joseph-Gaudet. from the Episcopal Women's History Project

US, 1882-1953, CHARLES MENNINGER, PIONEER IN MEDICINE, Topeka, Kansas, Menninger Clinic 1925, first Psychiatric cures
US, 1882-1953, Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, Topeka, Kansas (Kansas River 2, Oregon Trail 3), Menninger Clinic w sons 1925, first Psychiatric cures, homwopath, saw Mayo Clinic collaborative group practice; Topeka, Kansas; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; F. Menninger (July 11, 1862 - Nov. 28, 1953), with his two sons, founded the Menninger Clinic in 1925 in Topeka, Kansas. This was one of the first places which sought to treat psychiatric maladies as illnesses which could be cured, rather than simply providing custodial care. was born in Tell City, Indiana, and received his initial medical degree from Hahnemann (homeopathic) Medical School in Chicago. He later moved to Kansas, teaching at Kansas Medical College. He set up a general medical practice in Topeka, gradually becoming interested in psychiatry. He sought collaboration with local Topeka doctors, who tended to reject him due to his homeopathic background. As a consequence, he became enamored of collaborative group practice, such as he saw at the Mayo Clinic. This would later strongly influence his own clinic.

US, 1882-1929, CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop, Luzon Island, Phillippines, helped non-christians
Phillippines, 1882-1929, CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop, Luzon Island, Phillippines, for non-christian muslims, chinese, Luzon Igorots, against opium traffic; Luzon Island, Phillippines; CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); the Spanish-American War (1898), arising from a dispute over Cuba and Puerto Rico, the United States also acquired Guam and the Philippines. (For a brief note on the subsequent history of these territories, see Kamehameha, 28 November.) 1902, the Episcopal Church appointed Charles Brent (at that time serving as priest in charge of a slum parish in Boston) as Missionary Bishop of the Philippines. He arrived on the same ship with the American Governor, William H. Taft, and carried with him the unofficial but very real prestige of the American establishment. could easily have confined himself to providing a kind of ecclesiastical "home away from home" for American officials and others stationed in the Islands. he could have devoted himself chiefly to efforts to convert the Roman Catholics, both of Spanish and of Filipino ancestry, whom the previous government had left behind. he directed his efforts toward the non-Christians of his diocese: the pagan Igorots of the mountains of Luzon, the Muslims of the southern islands, the Chinese settlements in Manila, all areas in which he made considerable inroads and established thriving Christian communities. began a campaign against the opium traffic, and served on several international commissions devoted to stamping out international traffic in narcotics. World War I, he was the Senior Chaplain for the American Armed Forces in Europe. He declined three elections to bishoprics in the United States in order to continue his work in the Philippines, but in 1918, he accepted the position of Bishop of Western New York. experiences in the Philippines had aroused in him a strong concern for the cause of visible Christian unity. wrote: The unity of Christendom is not a luxury, but a necessity. The world will go limping until Christ's prayer that all may be one is answered. We must have unity, not at all costs, but at all risks. A unified Church is the only offering we dare present to the coming Christ, for in it alone will He find room to dwell. helped to organize the first World Conference on Faith and Order, which met in Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1927. He died there in 1929, being 67 years minus 12 days old. following prayer, written by him, is widely used today: Lord Jesus Christ, who didst stretch out thine arms of love upon the hard wood of the Cross, that all men everywhere might come within the reach of thy saving embrace: So clothe us with thy Spirit that we, reaching forth our hands in love, may bring those who do not know thee to the knowledge and love of thee; for the honor of thy Name. writer James Thayer Addison called him "a saint of disciplined mental vigor, one whom soldiers were proud to salute and whom children were happy to play with, who could dominate a parliament and minister to an invalid, a priest and bishop who gloried in the heritage of his Church, yet who stood among all Christian brothers as one who served." by James Kiefer

US, 1883-1889, Northern Pacific Railway - Pacific Expansion from Bozeman Pass West through Stampede Pass (I90)
Northern Pacific Railway; Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly forty million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km2) of land grants, which it used to raise money in Europe for construction. began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific when former President Ulysses S. Grant drove in the final "golden spike" in western Montana on September 8, 1883. railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the NP had an international branch to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land. Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the NP merged with other lines in 1970 to form the Burlington Northern Railroad, which in turn merged with the Santa Fe Railway to become the BNSF Railway in 1996. Map of NPR Land Grant, c1890 chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864, with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the Pacific, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking Washington and Oregon to the rest of the country.[1] granted the railroad a potential 60 million acres (243,000 km2) of land in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864.[1] It could not use all the land and in the end took just under 40 million acres.[2] Cooke takes control[edit] the next six years, backers of the road struggled to find financing. Though John Gregory Smith succeeded Perham as president on January 5, 1865, groundbreaking did not take place until February 15, 1870, at Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota. backing and promotions of famed financier Jay Cooke in the summer of 1870 brought the first real momentum to the company. The Minnetonka. Over the course of 1871, the Northern Pacific pushed westward from Minnesota into present-day North Dakota. Surveyors and construction crews had to maneuver through swamps, bogs, and tamarack forests. The difficult terrain and insufficient funding delayed by six months the construction phase in Minnesota.[3] NP also began building its line north from Kalama, Washington Territory, on the Columbia River outside of Portland, Oregon, towards Puget Sound. small construction engines were purchased, the Minnetonka, Itaska, Ottertail and St. Cloud, the first of which was shipped to Kalama by ship around Cape Horn. Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad completed construction of its 155-mile (249 km) line stretching from Saint Paul to Lake Superior at Duluth in 1870. It was leased to the Northern Pacific in 1876, and was eventually absorbed by the Northern Pacific. The North Coast Limited was the Northern Pacific's flagship train and the Northern Pacific itself was built along the trail first blazed by Lewis and Clark.[4] Preferred Shares of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company, issued 28. November 1881 Northern Pacific reached Fargo, Dakota Territory (N.D.), early in June 1872. The following year, in June 1873, the N.P. reached the shores of the Missouri River, at Edwinton (Bismarck) D.T. In the west, the track extended 25 miles (40 km) north from Kalama. Surveys were carried out in North Dakota protected by 600 troops under General Winfield Scott Hancock. Headquarters and shops were established in Brainerd, Minnesota, a town named for the President John Gregory Smith's wife Anna Elizabeth Brainerd. A severe stock market crash and financial collapse after 1873, led by the Credit Mobilier Scandal and the Union Pacific Railroad fraud, stopped further railroad building for twelve years. 1886, the company put down 164 miles (264 km) of main line across North Dakota, with an additional 45 miles (72 km) in Washington. November 1, General George Washington Cass became the third president of the company. Cass had been a vice-president and director of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and would lead the Northern Pacific through some of its most difficult times. on survey parties and construction crews by Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa warriors in North Dakota and Minnesota became so prevalent that the company received protection from units of the U.S. Army.[5] 1886, the Northern Pacific also opened colonization offices in Germany and Scandinavia, attracting farmers with cheap package transportation and purchase deals. The success of the NP was based on the abundant crops of wheat and other grains and the attraction to settlers of the Red River Valley along the Minnesota-North Dakota border between 1881 and 1890.[6] Northern Pacific reached Dakota Territory at Fargo in 1872, and began its career as one of the central factors in the economic growth of North Dakota. The climate, although very cold, was suitable for wheat, which was in high demand in the cities of the United States and Europe. Most of the settlers were German and Scandinavian immigrants who bought the land cheaply, and raised large families. They shipped huge quantities of wheat to Minneapolis, while buying all sorts of equipment and home supplies to be shipped in by rail.[7] NP used its federal land grants as security to borrow money to build its system.[8] federal government kept every other section of land, and gave it away free to homesteaders. first the railroad sold much of its holdings at low prices to land speculators in order to realize quick cash profits, and also to eliminate sizable annual tax bills. 1905 the railroad company's land policies changed, after it was judged a costly mistake to have sold much of the land at wholesale prices. better railroad service and improved methods of farming the Northern Pacific easily sold what had been heretofore "worthless" land directly to farmers at good prices. 1910 the railroad's holdings in North Dakota had been greatly reduced.[9][10] of 1873 and first bankruptcy[edit] 1873, Northern Pacific made impressive strides before a terrible stumble. Rails from the east reached the Missouri River on June 4. After several years of study, Tacoma, Washington, was selected as the road's western terminus on July 14, 1873. the previous three years the financial house of Jay Cooke and Company had been throwing money into the construction of the Northern Pacific. As with many western transcontinentals, the staggering costs of building a railroad into a vast wilderness had been drastically underestimated. Cooke had little success in marketing the bonds in Europe and overextended his house in meeting overdrafts of the mounting construction costs. Cooke overestimated his managerial skills and failed to appreciate the limits of a banker's ability to be also a promoter, and the danger of freezing his assets in the bonds of the Northern Pacific.[11] and Company went bankrupt on September 18, 1873. Soon the Panic of 1873 engulfed the United States, beginning an economic depression that ruined or nearly paralyzed newer railroads. Northern Pacific survived bankruptcy that year, due to austerity measures put in place by President Cass. In fact, working with last-minute loans from Director John C. Ainsworth of Portland, the Northern Pacific completed the line from Kalama to Tacoma (110 miles (180 km)) before the end of 1873. On December 16, the first steam train arrived in Tacoma. But in 1874 the company was moribund.[clarification needed] Pacific slipped into its first bankruptcy on June 30, 1875. Cass resigned to become receiver of the company, and Charles Barstow Wright became its fourth president. Frederick Billings, namesake of Billings, Montana, formulated a reorganization plan which was put into effect. 1874 to 1876, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer operating out of Forts Abraham Lincoln and Rice in Dakota Territory conducted expeditions to protect the railroad survey and construction crews in Dakota and Montana Territories.[citation needed] Billings and first reorganization[edit] 1877, construction resumed in a small way. Northern Pacific pushed a branch line southeast from Tacoma to Puyallup, Washington and on to the coal fields around Wilkeson, Washington. Much of the coal was destined for export through Tacoma to San Francisco, California, where it would be thrown into the fireboxes of Central Pacific Railroad steam engines. small amount of construction was one of the largest projects the company would undertake in the years between 1874 and 1880. That same year the company built a large shop complex at Edison, Washington (now part of south Tacoma). For many years the shops at Brainerd and Edison would carry out heavy repairs and build equipment for the railroad. May 24, 1879, Frederick H. Billings became the president of the company. Billings' tenure would be short but ferocious. Reorganization, bond sales, and improvement in the U.S. economy allowed Northern Pacific to strike out across the Missouri River by letting a contract to build 100 miles (160 km) of railroad west of the river. The railroad's new-found strength, however, would be seen as a threat in certain quarters. Henry Villard, Gold Creek, Gold Spike[edit] Yellowstone Park Line Brochure 1904 and Transcontinental stock owned by Henry Villard. journalist Henry Villard had raised capital for western railroads in Europe from 1871 to 1873. After returning to New York in 1874 he invested on behalf of his clients in railroads in Oregon. Through Villard's work, most of these lines became properties of the European creditors' holding company, the Oregon and Transcontinental Company. the lines held by the Oregon and Transcontinental, the most important was the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which ran east from Portland along the left bank of the Columbia River to a connection with the Union Pacific Railroad's Oregon Short Line at the confluence of the Columbia River and the Snake River near Wallula, Washington. a decade of his return, Villard was head of a transportation empire in the Pacific Northwest that had but one real competitor, the Northern Pacific. The Northern Pacific's completion threatened the holdings of Villard in the Northwest, and especially in Portland. Portland would become a second-class city if the Puget Sound ports at Tacoma and Seattle, Washington, were connected to the East by rail. who had been building a monopoly of river and rail transportation in Oregon for several years, now launched a daring raid. Using his European connections and a reputation for having "bested" Jay Gould in a battle for control of the Kansas Pacific years before, Villard solicited – and raised – $8,000,000 from his associates. This was his famous "Blind Pool," Villard's associates were not told what the money would be used for. In this case, the funds were used to purchase control of the Northern Pacific. a tough fight, Billings and his backers were forced to capitulate; he resigned the presidency June 9, 1881. Ashbel H. Barney, former President of Wells Fargo & Company, served briefly as interim caretaker of the railroad from June 19 to September 15, when Villard was elected president by the stockholders. For the next two years, Villard and the Northern Pacific rode the whirlwind. 1882, 360 miles (580 km) of main line and 368 miles (592 km) of branch line were completed, bringing totals to 1,347 miles (2,168 km) and 731 miles (1,176 km), respectively. October 10, 1882, the line from Wadena, Minnesota, to Fergus Falls, Minnesota, opened for service. The Missouri River was bridged with a million-dollar span on October 21, 1883. Until then, crossing of the Missouri had had to be managed with a ferry service for most of the year; in winter, when ice was thick enough, rails were laid across the river itself. Herman Haupt, another veteran of the Civil War and the Pennsylvania Railroad, organized the Northern Pacific Beneficial Association in 1881. A forerunner of the modern health maintenance organization, the NPBA ultimately established a series of four hospitals across the system in Saint Paul, Minnesota; Glendive, Montana; Missoula, Montana; and Tacoma, Washington, to care for employees, retirees, and their families. January 15, 1883, the first train reached Livingston, Montana, at the eastern foot of Bozeman Pass. Livingston, like Brainerd and South Tacoma before it, would grow to encompass a large backshop handling heavy repairs for the railroad. It would also mark the east–west dividing line on the Northern Pacific system. pushed hard for the completion of the Northern Pacific in 1883. His crews laid an average of a mile and half (2.4 km) of track each day. In early September, the line neared completion. celebrate, and to gain national publicity for investment opportunities in his region, Villard chartered four trains to carry guests from the East to Gold Creek in western Montana. No expense was spared and the list of dignitaries included Frederick Billings, Ulysses S. Grant, and Villard's in-laws, the family of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. On September 8, the Gold Spike was driven near Gold Creek.[12] to Puget Sound[edit] fall was swifter than his ascendancy. Like Jay Cooke, he was now consumed by the enormous costs of constructing the railroad. Street bears attacked the stock shortly after the Golden Spike, after the realization that the Northern Pacific was a very long road with very little business. himself suffered a nervous breakdown in the days after the driving of the Golden Spike, and he left the presidency of the Northern Pacific in January 1884. the presidency of the Northern Pacific was handed to a professional railroader, Robert Harris, former head of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. For the next four years, until the return of the Villard group, Harris worked at improving the property and ending its tangled relationship with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. the mid-1880s, the Northern Pacific pushed to reach Puget Sound directly, rather than by means of a roundabout route that followed the Columbia River. of the Cascade Mountains, carried out intermittently since the 1870s, began anew. Virgil Bogue, a veteran civil engineer, was sent to explore the Cascades again. On March 19, 1881, he discovered Stampede Pass. 1883, John W. Sprague, the head of the new Pacific Division, drove the Golden Spike to mark the beginning of the railroad from what would become Kalama, Washington. He resigned a months later due to impaired health. 1884, after the departure of Villard, the Northern Pacific began building toward Stampede Pass from Wallula in the east and the area of Wilkeson in the west. By the end of the year, rails had reached Yakima, Washington in the east. A 77-mile (124 km) gap remained in 1886. January of that year, Nelson Bennett was given a contract to construct a 9,850-foot (1.866 mi; 3.00 km) tunnel under Stampede Pass. The contract specified a short amount of time for completion, and a large penalty if the deadline were missed. While crews worked on the tunnel, the railroad built a temporary switchback route across the pass. With numerous timber trestles and grades which approached six percent, the temporary line required two M class 2-10-0s — the two largest locomotives in the world (at that time) — to handle a tiny five-car train. On May 3, 1888, crews holed through the tunnel, and on May 27 the first train passed through directly to Puget Sound. and the Panic of 1893[edit] this success, the Northern Pacific, like many U.S. roads, was living on borrowed time. From 1887 until 1893, Henry Villard returned to the board of directors. Though offered the presidency, he refused. An associate of Villard dating back to his time on the Kansas Pacific, Thomas Fletcher Oakes, assumed the presidency on September 20, 1888. an effort to garner business, Oakes pursued an aggressive policy of branch line expansion. addition, the Northern Pacific experienced the first competition in the form of James Jerome Hill and his Great Northern Railway. The Great Northern, like the Northern Pacific before it, was pushing west from the Twin Cities towards Puget Sound, and would be completed in 1893. sparse traffic, and the Panic of 1893 sounded the death knell for the Northern Pacific and Villard's interest in railroading. The company slipped into its second bankruptcy on October 20, 1893. Oakes was named receiver and Brayton Ives, a former chairman of the New York Stock Exchange, became president. labor dispute[edit] 1894, the 10th Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army was involved in protecting property of the Northern Pacific Railroad from striking workers.[13] Villard to Morganization[edit] the next three years, the Villard-Oakes interests and the Ives interest feuded for control of the Northern Pacific. Oakes was eventually forced out as receiver, but not before three separate courts were claiming jurisdiction over the Northern Pacific's bankruptcy. Things came to a head in 1896, when first Edward Dean Adams was appointed president, then less than two months later, Edwin Winter. the task of straightening out the muddle of the Northern Pacific was turned over to J. P. Morgan. Morganization of the Northern Pacific, a process which befell many U.S. roads in the wake of the Panic of 1893, was handed to Morgan lieutenant Charles Henry Coster. The new president, beginning September 1, 1897, was Charles Sanger Mellen.[14] James J. Hill had purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific during the troubled days of 1896, Coster and Mellen would advocate, and follow, a staunchly independent line for the Northern Pacific for the next four years. Only the early death of Coster from overwork, and the promotion of Mellen to head the Morgan-controlled New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1903, would bring the Northern Pacific closer to the orbit of James J. Hill.[15] Map of Northern Pacific's route circa 1900. Hill, Harriman and the Northern Pacific Corner[edit] the late 1880s, the Villard regime, in another one of its costly missteps, attempted to stretch the Northern Pacific from the Twin Cities to the all-important rail hub of Chicago, Illinois. A costly project was begun in creating a union station and terminal facilities for a Northern Pacific which had yet to arrive. than build directly down to Chicago, perhaps following the Mississippi River as the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy had done, Villard chose to lease the Wisconsin Central. Some backers of the Wisconsin Central had long associations with Villard, and an expensive lease was worked out between the two companies which was only undone by the Northern Pacific's second bankruptcy. ultimate result was that the Northern Pacific was left without a direct connection to Chicago, the primary interchange point for most of the large U.S. railroads. Fortunately, the Northern Pacific was not alone. James J. Hill, controller of the Great Northern Railway, which was completed between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound in 1893, also lacked a direct connection to Chicago. Hill went looking for a road with an existing route between the Twin Cities and Chicago which could be rolled into his holdings and give him a stable path to that important interchange. the same time, E. H. Harriman, head of the Union Pacific Railroad, was also looking for a road which could connect his company to Chicago. The road both Harriman and Hill looked at was the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. Harriman, the Burlington was a road which paralleled much of his own, and offered tantalizing direct access to Chicago. For Hill as well, there was the possibility of a high-speed link directly with Chicago. Though the Burlington did not parallel the Great Northern or the Northern Pacific, it would give them a powerful railroad in the central West. was the first to approach the Burlington's aging leader, the irascible Charles Elliott Perkins. The price for control of the Burlington, as set by Perkins, was $200 a share, more than Harriman was willing to pay. met the price, and control of the Burlington was divided equally at about 48.5 percent each between the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific. to be outdone, Harriman now came up with a crafty plan: Buy a controlling interest in the Northern Pacific and use its power on the Burlington to place friendly directors upon its board. On May 3, 1901, Harriman began his stock raid which would become known as the Northern Pacific Corner. the end of the day he was short just 40,000 shares of common stock. Harriman placed an order to cover this, but was overridden by his broker, Jacob Schiff, of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. on the other hand, reached the vacationing Morgan in Italy and managed to place an order for 150,000 shares of common stock. Though Harriman might be able to control the preferred stock, Hill knew the company bylaws allowed for the holders of the common stock to vote to retire the preferred. three days the Harriman-Hill imbroglio managed to wreak havoc on the stock market. Northern Pacific stock was quoted at $150 a share on May 6, and is reported to have traded as much as $1,000 a share behind the scenes. Harriman and Hill now worked to settle the issue for brokers to avoid panic. Hill, for his part, attempted to avoid future stock raids by placing his holdings in the Northern Securities Company, a move which would be undone by the Supreme Court in 1904 under the auspices of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. was not immune either; he was forced to break up his holdings in the Union Pacific Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad a few years later. Hill to Howard Elliott[edit] 1903, Hill finally got his way with the House of Morgan. Howard Elliott, another veteran of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, became president of the Northern Pacific on October 23. Elliott was a relative of the Burlington's crusty chieftain Charles Elliott Perkins, and more distantly the Burlington's great backer, John Murray Forbes. He had spent 20 years in the trenches of Midwest railroading, where rebates, pooling, expansion and rate wars had brought ruinous competition. Having seen the effects of having multiple railroads attempt to serve the same destination, he was very much in tune with James J. Hill's philosophy of "community of interest," a loose affiliation or collusion among roads in an attempt to avoid duplicating routes, rate wars, weak finances and ultimately bankruptcies and reorganizations. would be left to make peace with the Hill-controlled Great Northern; the Harriman-controlled Union Pacific; and, between 1907 and 1909, the last of the northern transcontinentals, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, more commonly known as the Milwaukee Road. A Northern Pacific train travels over Bozeman Pass in June 1939 the twentieth century[edit] the turn of the century the Northern Pacific had a record of steady improvement. Together with the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific also gained control of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, gaining important access to Chicago, the central Middle West and Texas, as well as the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway, an important route through eastern and southern Washington. physical plant was upgraded continuously, with double-tracking in key areas, and automatic block signaling along its entire main line. This in turn gave way to centralized traffic control, microwave and radio communications as time progressed.[citation needed] Northern Pacific maintained and continuously upgraded its equipment and service. The road helped pioneer the 4-8-4 Northern type steam engine and the 2-8-8-4 Yellowstone. was among the first railroads in the country to adopt diesel power beginning with General Motors’ FTs in 1944.[citation needed] Despite this, with cheap (albeit low-quality) coal reserves in Wyoming it was among the last US railroads to complete dieselization, in 1960. NP depot at Wallace, Idaho, 2007 Northern Pacific's premier passenger train, the North Coast Limited was among the safest and finest in the nation, suffering only one passenger fatality in nearly seventy years of operation.[citation needed] 1900, most of the remaining land-grant holdings were located west of Montana, in the "western district." railroad still hoped to sell this land, both to provide operating funds and to populate the region to provide new markets to sustain the railroad. Nearly all the good farm land had been sold, leaving large tracts of grazing land or timber. The grazing acreage was poor quality, and difficult to sell. However, the timber lands were of high quality; much of these were sold to Frederick Weyerhaeuser.[16] of the Hill Lines[edit] later years, Louis W. Menk became president of the Northern Pacific, and then he brought it together with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 2, 1970, to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. The merger was allowed despite a challenge in the Supreme Court, essentially reversing the outcome of the 1904 Northern Securities ruling. A 900 mi (1,400 km) portion of the former Northern Pacific mainline in Montana was spun off and is now operated by Montana Rail Link. Revenue freight traffic, in millions of net ton-miles (including M&I, G&P) Year Traffic 1925 6852 1933 3600 1944 14679 1960 11360 1967 13629 Source: ICC annual reports 1949, the Northern Pacific's headquarters in Saint Paul presided over a system of 6,889 miles (11,087 km), which 2,831 miles (4,556 km) of main line, 4,057 miles (6,529 km) of branch line under seven operating divisions. Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches. Paul[edit] in St. Paul, Minnesota in the company's Railroad and Bank Building, the St. Paul Division's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches. in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches. in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches. Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana. in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches. in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17] the railroad expanded, immigrants, families, and single men moved to the Pacific Northwest. Tacoma's population grew rapidly: in 1880 there were 1,098 residents, and in 1889 there were 36,000.[18] service[edit] line encouraged people to make their homes in the Pacific Northwest by having an "immigration agent" and offering special excursion trains for prospective buyers during the winter months. North Coast Limited was the premier passenger train operated by the Northern Pacific Railway between Chicago and Seattle via Butte, Montana and Homestake Pass. It commenced service on April 29, 1900, served briefly as a Burlington Northern train after the merger on March 2, 1970, and ceased operation on April 30, 1971, the day before Amtrak began service. The Chicago Union Station to Saint Paul leg of the train's route was operated by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad along its Mississippi River mainline through Wisconsin. Northern Pacific's secondary transcontinental passenger train was the Alaskan, until it was replaced by the Mainstreeter on November 16, 1952.[19][page needed] Mainstreeter, which operated via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, continued in service through the Burlington Northern merger until Amtrak Day (May 1, 1971). It had been reduced to a Saint Paul to Seattle train after the last run of the former Burlington Route Black Hawk on April 12–13, 1970. Northern Pacific also participated in the Coast Pool Train service between Portland and Seattle with the Great Northern Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. NP and GN Coast Pool Trains lasted until Amtrak. were several other passenger trains which were discontinued before the Burlington Northern merger. These included: Saint Paul to International Falls, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Duluth, Minnesota (which at one time was also a pool operation, with Great Northern Railway and the Soo Line); Duluth to Staples, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Jamestown, North Dakota (the last remnant of the Alaskan); Fargo, North Dakota to Winnipeg, Manitoba; The Route of "the Great Big Baked Potato"[edit] Actress Lillian Russell and other Hollywood stars were hired to promote the railroad's potatoes. comic postcard circa 1910 to 1920 promoting "The Great Big Baked Potato". Hazen Titus was appointed as the line's dining car superintendent in 1908. He learned that Yakima Valley farmers were unable to sell their potato crops because the potatoes they were growing were simply too large; they fed them to the hogs. Titus learned that a single potato could weigh from two to five pounds, but that smaller potatoes were preferred by the end buyers of the vegetable because many people considered large potatoes inedible due to their thick, rough skin.[20] and his staff discovered the "inedible" potatoes were delicious after baking in a slow oven. He contracted to purchase as many potatoes as the farmers could produce that were more than two pounds in weight. Soon after the first delivery of "Netted Gem Bakers", they were offered to diners on the North Coast Limited beginning in early 1909. Word of the line's specialty offering traveled quickly, and before long it was using "the Great Big Baked Potato" as a slogan to promote the railroad's passenger service. Hollywood stars were hired to promote it.[21] When an addition was built for the Northern Pacific's Seattle commissary in 1914, a Railway Age reporter wrote, "A large trade mark, in the shape of a baked potato, 40 ft. long and 18 ft. in diameter, surmounts the roof. The potato is electric lighted and its eyes, through the electric mechanism, are made to wink constantly. A cube of butter thrust into its split top glows intermittently." Premiums such as postcards, letter openers, and spoons were also produced to promote "The Route of the Great Big Baked Potato"; the slogan served the Northern Pacific for about 50 years.[20]

Tacoma, Washington, Headquarters Tacoma Division Northern Pacific RWY
Tacoma, Washington; in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17]

NP Railroad Tacoma Division Yakima to Tacoma over Stampede Pass through Auburn

Edison, Washington NP Repair Facility, Tacoma
Tacoma, Washington;

Puyallup, Washington

Puyallup River Folder

White River (Puyallup River, Stuck River) Mouth
White River (Puyallup River) Mouth;

White River Source, Mt Ranier
White River Source, Mt Ranier;

White River 1, Greenwater, WA
White River 1, Greenwater, WA;

White River 2, Buckley, WA
White River 2, Buckley, WA;

White River 2, Enumclaw, WA
White River 2, Enumclaw, WA;

White River 3, Pacific, WA
White River 3, Pacific, WA;

White River Source 2, Clearwater River

White River

Puyallup River Mouth, Commencement Bay Tacoma
Puyallup River Mouth, Commencement Bay Tacoma;

Puyallup River Source, Mt Ranier
Puyallup River Source, Mt Ranier;

Puyallup Glacier, North Puyallup River Source
Puyallup Glacier, North Puyallup River Source;

Tahoma Glacier, South Puyallup River Source
Tahoma Glacier, South Puyallup River Source;

Puyallup River Source 1 Tahoma Glacier, South Puyallup River

Puyallup River Source 1, Puyallup Glacier, North Puyallup River

Mowich River Mouth, Puyallup River 1
Mowich River Mouth, Puyallup River 1;

Mowich River Source, South Mowich Glacier
Mowich River Source, South Mowich Glacier;

Mowich River

Electron and Kapowsin, Puyallup River 2
Electron and Kapowsin, Puyallup River 2;

Orting, Washington, and Carbon River Mouth, Puyallup River 3
Orting, Washington, and Carbon River Mouth, Puyallup River 3; Carbon River;

Carbon River Source, Carbon Glacier, Mt Ranier
Carbon Glacier, Mt Ranier;

Carbon River

Puyallup River 4, White River Mouth, Sumner, WA
Puyallup River 4, White River Mouth, Sumner, WA;

Puyallup River 6, Fife, WA
Puyallup River 6, Fife, WA;

Puyallup River

Wilkeson, Washington, Coal Fields
Wilkeson, Washington

Wilkerson Coal Fields, Black Diamond to Meeker through Puyallup and Orting, NP Railroad

Missoula, Montana, Northern Pacific Beneficial Association (NPBA) Hospital
Missoula, Montana;

Gold Creek (Montana)
Gold Creek (Montana);

Stampede Pass
Stampede Pass;

Yakima, Washington
Yakima, Washington;

Clark Fork River

Arlee, MT

Missoula, Arlee, Jocko, Flathead River, Paradise, Spokane Divison, NP Railroad

Jocko, MT

Flathead River

Dixon, MT, Flathead River

Paradise, MT, Rocky Mt Division Livingston to Paradise Via Helena
Rocky Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.

Paradise, MT, East End Idaho Division Northern Pacific Railroad
Paradise, MT
in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches.

Plains, MT

Eddy, MT

Thompson Falls, MT

Belknap, MT

Noxon, MT

Heron, MT

Clark Fork, ID

Hope, ID

Kootenai, ID

Granite, ID

Rathdrum, ID

Spokane, WA

Columbia River

Spokane, WA, Idaho Division Headquarters Northern Pacific Railroad
Spokane, WA
in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches.

Idaho Division Parradise Mt to Yakima, WA throuth Spokane, WA, Northern Pacific RWY

Marshall, WA

Cheney, WA

Pasco, WA

Lind, WA

Sprague, WA

Ritzville, WA

Connell, WA

Ellensburg, WA

Prosser, WA

Status, WA

Yakima, WA

Yakima, WA, West End Idaho Division Norther Pacific Railroad
Yakima, WA
in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches.

Yakima River

Rosa, WA

Hatton, WA

Meeker, WA Puyallup, WA

Auburn, WA

Franklin Ghost Town, Black Diamond, WA

Cle Elum, WA

Ronald, WA

Stampede, WA

Eagle Gorge, WA

Logan, MT
Rocky Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.

NP Railroad - Rocky Mt Division - Logan to Garrison via Butte and Homestake Pass
Rocky Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana.

Helena, MT

NP Railroad Rock Mt Division - Livingston to Paradise via Helena

NP Railroad, Rocky Mt Division - Phillipsburg Mines, Smelter and Rock Creek

Elliston, MT

Avon, MT

Garrison, MT

Whitehall, MT

Homestake, MT Homestake Pass
Homestake, MT

Butte, MT

Anaconda, MT

Rumsley, MT

Deer Lodge, MT

Drummond, MT

Clinton, MT

Clark Fork River (Butte, Deer Lodge, Anaconda, Silver Bow Creek)

Clark Fork River (Warm Springs Creek)

US, 1885-1889, President, Grover Cleveland, honest, moral, unpopular but successful leader, policy maker
US President, 1885-1889, Grover Cleveland ; Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American history to serve two nonconsecutive terms in office.[b] He won the popular vote for three presidential elections—in 1884, 1888, and 1892—and was one of two Democrats (followed by Woodrow Wilson in 1912) to be elected president during the era of Republican presidential domination dating from 1861 to 1933. Born to a Presbyterian minister and his wife, Cleveland grew up in upstate New York. In 1881, he was elected mayor of Buffalo and later, governor of New York. Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs; Free Silver; inflation; imperialism; and subsidies to business, farmers, or veterans. His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era.[1] Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism.[2] He fought political corruption, patronage, and bossism. As a reformer, Cleveland had such prestige that the like-minded wing of the Republican Party, called "Mugwumps", largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket and swung to his support in the 1884 election.[3] As his second administration began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a severe national depression. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. The result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era.[4] was a formidable policymaker, and he also drew corresponding criticism. intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 to keep the railroads moving angered labor unions nationwide in addition to the party in Illinois; his support of the gold standard and opposition to Free Silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party.[5] Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term.[5] so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term. Biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "[I]n Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have. He possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not."[6] By the end of his second term, public perception showed him to be one of the most unpopular U.S. presidents, and he was by then rejected even by most Democrats.[7] Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader, and has been praised for honesty, integrity, adherence to his morals and defying party boundaries, and effective leadership. He is generally ranked among the upper-mid tier of American presidents. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1885-1890, Southern Pacific Railroad, acquired Central Pacific 1885
Southern Pacific Railroad; Central Pacific Railroad

US, 1886-1949, HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, first formal orchestral arrangements for more than 100 Negro spirituals
US, 1886-1949, HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, St. George's Episcopal church, Midtown, Manhattan, NYC, COMPOSER, first formal orchestral arrangements for more than 100 Negro spirituals; St. George's Episcopal church in New York City; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949 ; "Harry" Thacker Burleigh (December 2, 1866 – September 12, 1949), baritone, was an African American classical composer, arranger, and professional singer. 1894, he became a soloist for St. George's Episcopal church in New York City. was opposition to hiring Burleigh at the all-white church from some parishioners, because of his race, at a time when other white New York Episcopal churches were forbidding black people to worship. P. Morgan, a member of St. George's at that time, cast the deciding vote to hire Burleigh. spite of the initial problems obtaining the appointment, Burleigh became close to many of the members during his long tenure as a soloist at the church. also made the first formal orchestral arrangements for more than 100 Negro spirituals, including Nobody Knows (the Trouble I've Seen). best-known compositions are his arrangements of these spirituals, as art songs. were so popular during the late 1910s and 1920s, that almost no vocal recitalist gave a concert in a major city without occasionally singing them. many ways, the popularity of Burleigh's settings contributed to an explosion of popularity for the genre during the 1920s. the 1920s and 1930s, Burleigh continued to promote the spirituals through publications, lectures, and arrangements. life-long advocacy for the spiritual eclipsed his singing career, and his arrangements of art songs. was the first black composer to be instrumental in the development of a characteristically American music and he helped to make black music available to classically-trained artists both by introducing them to the music and by arranging the music in a more classical form. (more from Wikipedia)

US, 1886-1961, Charles Harrison (CH) Mason, Pentecostal Saint, COGIC, Memphis, Tongues, Yes Lord
Shelby, County, TN; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; Charles Harrison Mason Sr. (September 8, 1866 – November 17, 1961) was an American Holiness–Pentecostal pastor and minister.[1][2] He was the founder and first Senior Bishop of the Church of God in Christ, based in Memphis, Tennessee. It developed into what is today the largest Holiness Pentecostal church denomination and one of the largest predominantly African-American Christian denominations in the United States.[1][3] and early ministry was born the son of former slaves Jerry and Eliza Mason in Shelby County, Tennessee. He lived with his family in an unincorporated area near Bartlett. Mason worked with his family sharecropping and he did not receive an early formal education. As a child, Mason was greatly influenced by the religion of his parents. In at the age of fifteen Mason joined the Missionary Baptist Church in Shelby County; he was later baptized as a Christian by his older half-brother, Rev. I. S. Nelson.[4] had initially opposed pursuing ministry as a clergyman during his childhood and told his family he only wanted to remain a church lay member. Mason was 14 years old, he contracted tuberculosis, when a tuberculosis and yellow fever epidemic spread through Shelby County in 1880.[5] Because there were no medical centers or hospitals that would treat African Americans in Shelby County, and the small, poor medical centers that were owned and operated by African Americans proved to be of little help to the residents of Shelby County, Mason's father, Jerry died from the infectious disease, and the family was forced to relocate to Preston, Arkansas. moving to Arkansas, as his own health briefly worsened, when Mason's mother and siblings prayed for him and asked the parishioners at a local Baptist church to pray for him, Mason was reportedly miraculously healed and quickly recovered. After fully recovering from the tuberculosis, it was then when he told his family and the local parishioners of the Baptist church his family had joined (which would later be known as the Mount Gale Missionary Baptist Church), "he believed God had healed him for the express purpose of alerting him to his spiritual duty"; He acknowledged throughout his teenage and young adult years subsequently that he believed "God called him into full-time ministry from then on."[4][6][5] 1893, at the age of 27, Mason began his own ministerial career by accepting a local license from the Mount Gale Missionary Baptist Church in Preston, Arkansas. On November 1, 1893, Mason entered the Arkansas Baptist College, but withdrew after three months because of his dissatisfaction with their curriculum and methodology. He claimed his reason for leaving was because he believed "the teachings being promulgated at the particular Bible college were too liberal," and "...did not have a strong enough emphasis on the Word of God"; he was deeply disturbed by the particular hermeneutics and philosophical presuppositions that were underlying the curriculum set forth by the college and left in January 1894.[7][8] to Holiness and Pentecostalism this period Mason became enamored with the autobiography of Amanda Berry Smith, an African Methodist Episcopal church evangelist. Smith had converted to the new wave of Holiness that was spreading during the latter part of the nineteenth century.[4] Those who had accepted the Holiness message testified to being "entirely sanctified" and cleansed from sin. Mason claimed sanctification and began preaching the doctrine of Holiness and Sanctification in the local Baptist churches. In 1895, Mason also became acquainted with Charles Price Jones, a popular Baptist preacher from Mississippi who shared his enthusiasm for Holiness teachings, as well as J. E. Jeter from Little Rock, Arkansas, and W. S. Pleasant from Hazelhurst, Mississippi. These men spread the doctrine of Holiness and Sanctification throughout the African-American Baptist churches in Mississippi, Arkansas, and western Tennessee.[4][8][5] June 1896, these men conducted a revival, preaching the message of Sanctification and Holiness that eventually led to their expulsion from the local Baptist association.[7] In 1897, Mason and Jones formed a new fellowship of churches named simply "Church of God." Mason suggested the name "the Church of God in Christ," a name that he said came to him during a vision in Little Rock, Arkansas. The name could distinguish the new church from a number of "Church of God" groups that were forming at the time. March 1907, Mason was sent by the church to Los Angeles to investigate the Azusa Street Revival being led by Reverend William J. Seymour.[9] His stay lasted six weeks, and before it was over he experienced the baptism of the Holy Ghost and spoke in tongues.[8][5][10] testimony of receiving the baptism with the Holy Ghost Main article: Baptism with the Holy Spirit following are excerpts from Elder Mason's personal testimony regarding his receiving the Holy Ghost. "The first day in the meeting I sat to myself, away from those that went with me. I began to thank God in my heart for all things, for when I heard some speak in tongues, I knew it was right though I did not understand it. Nevertheless, it was sweet to me. I also thank God for Elder Seymour who came and preached a wonderful sermon. His words were sweet and powerful and it seems that I hear them now while writing. When he closed his sermon, he said 'All of those that want to be sanctified or baptized with the Holy Ghost, go to the upper room; and all those that want to be justified, come to the altar.' I said that is the place for me, for it may be that I am not converted and if not, God knows it and can convert me..." "Glory!" "The second night of prayer I saw a vision. I saw myself standing alone and had a dry roll of paper in my mouth trying to swallow it. Looking up towards the heavens, there appeared a man at my side. I turned my eyes at once, then I awoke and the interpretation came. God had me swallowing the whole book and if I did not turn my eyes to anyone but God and Him only, He would baptize me. I said yes to Him, and at once in the morning when I arose, I could hear a voice in me saying, "I see..." "I got a place at the altar and began to thank God. After that, I said Lord if I could only baptize myself, I would do so; for I wanted the baptism so bad I did not know what to do. I said, Lord, You will have to do the work for me; so I turned it over into His hands." "Then, I began to ask for the baptism of the Holy Ghost according to Acts 2:4("All were filled with the Holy Spirit. They began to express themselves in foreign tongues and make bold proclamation as the Spirit prompted them") and Acts 2:41 ("Then they that gladly received His word were baptized"). Then I saw that I had a right to be glad and not sad." "The enemy said to me, there may be something wrong with you. Then a voice spoke to me saying, "If there is anything wrong with you, Christ will find it and take it away and marry you...Someone said, 'Let us sing.' I arose and the first song that came to me was 'He brought me out of the Miry Clay.' O Glory Hallelujah! Praise His most wonderful name! The Spirit came upon the saints and upon me...Then I gave up for the Lord to have His way within me. So there came a wave of Glory into me and all of my being was filled with the Glory of the Lord. So when He had gotten me straight on my feet, there came a light which enveloped my entire being above the brightness of the sun. When I opened my mouth to say Glory, a flame touched my tongue which ran down me. My language changed and no word could I speak in my own tongue. Oh! I was filled with the Glory of the Lord. My soul was then satisfied.[7] and Senior Bishop of the Church of God in Christ after his experience in Los Angeles, he returned to Mississippi preaching the new Pentecostal teachings on the Baptism of the Holy Ghost. He found that Elder Jones, the general overseer of the group, was opposed to it. After much debate at the general convocation in June 1907, Mason was expelled from the church. Later in November, he established a new pentecosal group in Memphis. He was elected the General Overseer of his group. years of conflict, in 1915 Mason won the legal rights to the name and charter of the Church of God in Christ (COGIC). In the years that followed, Mason directed his fledgling denomination. He commissioned traveling evangelists to spread COGIC's message, establishing working partnerships with various individuals, and particularly targeting the masses of African Americans headed for work in Northern cities in the Great Migration. He also founded two churches, Temple Church of God in Christ and St. Paul's Church of God in Christ. moving to Memphis and establishing it as the headquarters of COGIC, Mason founded and pastored the Temple COGIC. He established the annual "International Holy Convocation" to be held annually each year. As the church continued to grow, he established departments and auxiliaries including the Women's Department, Sunday School, and Young People Willing Workers (YPWW) which is known today as the International Youth Department (IYD). also appointed overseers and established dioceses of the church throughout the country. Mason's preaching was very practical and his delivery was spontaneous, often moving from teaching to preaching to singing and praying all in one presentation. he is most known for his consistent, disciplined and deliberate prayer life. In fact, COGIC prides itself as a church built on prayer and fasting. Mason is credited with writing the prayer chant, "Yes Lord" that has become known worldwide and sung not only by COGIC, but countless churches and other denominations and reformations. traveled the length and breadth of the country and many foreign lands preaching and establishing COGIC churches. Bishop Mason was not exclusive in his ministry, he preached in COGIC and non-COGIC churches alike. He also preached to interracial audiences as well. In fact Bishop Mason licensed several white Pentecostal ministers and in 1914 he preached at the founding meeting of the Assemblies of God. In 1911, he established the first auxiliaries and departments of the church including: Women, Young People Willing Workers (YPWW), and Sunday School. 1917, he was monitored by the government for speaking in opposition to America's entrance and support of World War I. His opposition, however, stemmed from the use of African-American men being called to fight for democracy abroad while having to face racism and discrimination here at home. 1917, he also purchased 400 acres in Lexington, MS to establish the Saints Industrial and Literary School. The school began classes in 1918 and eventually became Saint's College. The college was the major institution of higher learning for COGIC youth until closed in 1976.[5] 1926, Mason further organized COGIC by authorizing the church's constitution outlining the bylaws, rules, and regulations of the church. 1933, Bishop Mason set apart five overseers who became the first bishops in the church. 1945, Mason dedicated the now historic Mason Temple in Memphis as the church's national meeting site. At that time, it was the largest auditorium of any African-American religious group in the United States. In 1951, he set up a "special commission" and selected Bishop A. B. McEwen, Bishop J. S. Bailey, and Bishop O.M. Kelly as his assistants to help with the administration and oversight of the church. In 1952, he added Bishop J. O. Patterson, Sr. to this commission. Also in 1952, Bishop Mason revised the constitution to determine the leadership and succession of the church after his demise.[7][8] life 1890, Mason dated, courted, and married Alice Saxton, the daughter of one of his mother's friends.[4] Two years later, they divorced, due to Saxton's disagreement over Mason's ministerial life. remarried years later.[4] Saxton would succumb to illness and die in 1904.[4] A year after the death of his first wife, he courted and married Lelia Washington in 1905,[5] and to this union were born seven children; Deborah Indiana Mason Patterson, Lelia Mason Byas, Robert Mason, Arthur Mason, Alice Mason Amos, Mary Ester Mason, Julia Mason Atkins, and Ruth Mason Lewis. 1943, after the death of his second wife in 1936, he married his third and final wife, Elsie Washington (no relation to Leila Washington), who died in 2006. Bishop Mason died on November 17, 1961 in Detroit, MI at the age of 97.[4][8] funeral was held during the International Holy Convocation in Memphis and he was entombed in Mason Temple. He served as Senior Bishop of COGIC for 54 years and is recognized as one of the longest serving founders of a religious organization. By the time of Bishop Mason's death in 1961, COGIC had spread to every state in the Union and to many foreign countries; its membership was more than 400,000 and it had more than 4000 churches.[11] In the early 21st century, it is the largest Pentecostal Church in the United States, with an estimated membership of more than 7 million members and 12,000 churches. located in every state in the Union.[12] It is also located in more than 83 countries around the world. Its international membership is estimated to be between 1 and 3 million members and more than 25,000 churches.[13] Its worldwide membership is estimated to be between 6 and 8 million members.[14][15] COGIC began in 1907 with ten congregations in Mississippi, Arkansas, and Tennessee. The current leader and presiding bishop is Bishop Charles Blake of Los Angeles, California. The C. H. Mason Theological Seminary in Atlanta, Georgia, was founded in 1970 and named in his honor. It is part of the Interdemoninational Theological Center (ITC). The C.H. Mason System of Bible Colleges in numerous US locations awards certificates and associate level degrees in theology and ministry.

US, 1889-1893, Prest Ben Harrison, McKinley Tariff, protective trade rates, Sherman Antitrust A, 6 western states
US President, 1889-1893, Benjamin Harrison ; Harrison (August 20, 1833 – March 13, 1901) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 23rd president of the United States from 1889 to 1893. was a grandson of the ninth president, William Henry Harrison, and a great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison V, a founding father who signed the United States Declaration of Independence. was born on a farm by the Ohio River and graduated from Miami University in Oxford, Ohio. After moving to Indianapolis, he established himself as a prominent local attorney, Presbyterian church leader, and politician in Indiana. During the American Civil War, he served in the Union Army as a colonel, and was confirmed by the U.S. Senate as a brevet brigadier general of volunteers in 1865. Harrison unsuccessfully ran for governor of Indiana in 1876. The Indiana General Assembly elected Harrison to a six-year term in the U.S. Senate, where he served from 1881 to 1887. Republican, Harrison was elected to the presidency in 1888, defeating the Democratic incumbent, Grover Cleveland. Hallmarks of Harrison's administration included unprecedented economic legislation, including the McKinley Tariff, which imposed historic protective trade rates, and the Sherman Antitrust Act. Harrison also facilitated the creation of the national forest reserves through an amendment to the Land Revision Act of 1891. During his administration six western states were admitted to the Union. In addition, Harrison substantially strengthened and modernized the U.S. Navy and conducted an active foreign policy, but his proposals to secure federal education funding as well as voting rights enforcement for African Americans were unsuccessful. in large part to surplus revenues from the tariffs, federal spending reached one billion dollars for the first time during his term. The spending issue in part led to the defeat of the Republicans in the 1890 midterm elections. Cleveland defeated Harrison for reelection in 1892, due to the growing unpopularity of high tariffs and high federal spending. He returned to private life and his law practice in Indianapolis. In 1899 he represented Venezuela in its British Guiana boundary dispute with the United Kingdom. Harrison traveled to the court of Paris as part of the case and after a brief stay returned to Indianapolis. He died at his home in Indianapolis in 1901 of complications from influenza. Many have praised Harrison's commitment to African Americans' voting rights, but scholars and historians generally regard his administration as below average due to its corruption, as well as focused criticism on his signing of the McKinley Tariff. They rank him in the bottom half among U.S. presidents, though they do not question his commitment to personal and official integrity. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; WILLIAM PASSAVANT, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1894, Commemorated December 3; JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); PHILLIPS BROOKS, BISHOP AND PREACHER (23 JAN 1893); FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; CHARLES TODD QUINTARD, BISHOP OF TENNESSEE, 1898, Commemorated February 16; FREDERICK DOUGLASS, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1895, Commemorated February 20 ; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21 John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; Repose of St Alexis Toth the confessor and defender of Orthodoxy in America, Commemorated on May 7 ; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; PIONEERS OF THE EPISCOPAL ANGLICAN CHURCH OF BRAZIL, Commemorated June 7; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Jacob Riis of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1889-1957, EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, first African American Bishop Episcopal Church, Mason, Tennessee and Southwest
US, 1889-1957, EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, first African American Bishop Episcopal Church, Mason, Tennessee (near Memphis, Wolf River Mouth and Mississippi River 9); Mason, Tennessee ; Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Thomas Demby [Feb. 13, 1869-Oct. 14, 1957] was the first African American bishop in the Episcopal Church. He served his first parish in Mason, Tenn. became "Suffragan Bishop for Colored Work in Arkansas and the Province of the Southwest" in 1918. His career has been covered in a book, Black Bishop.

US, 1889-1893, Great Northern Hi-Line Road, b in stages, profitable lines, contests, Maris Pass, Steven's Pass
US, 1889-1893, Great Northern Hi-Line Road;

Hi-Line Road - US 2 - Great Northern RWY (Great Lakes to Spokane)

Marias Pass, through the Rocky Mountains, for the Great Northern RWY
Marias Pass, through the Rocky Mountains, for the Great Northern RWY;

US, 1890-1900, Northern Pacific Railway - at it's peak, fully developed
Northern Pacific Railway; Northern Pacific Railway (reporting mark NP) was a transcontinental railroad that operated across the northern tier of the western United States, from Minnesota to the Pacific Northwest. It was approved by Congress in 1864 and given nearly forty million acres (62,000 sq mi; 160,000 km2) of land grants, which it used to raise money in Europe for construction. began in 1870 and the main line opened all the way from the Great Lakes to the Pacific when former President Ulysses S. Grant drove in the final "golden spike" in western Montana on September 8, 1883. railroad had about 6,800 miles (10,900 km) of track and served a large area, including extensive trackage in the states of Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin. In addition, the NP had an international branch to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The main activities were shipping wheat and other farm products, cattle, timber, and minerals; bringing in consumer goods, transporting passengers; and selling land. Northern Pacific was headquartered in Minnesota, first in Brainerd, then in Saint Paul. It had a tumultuous financial history; the NP merged with other lines in 1970 to form the Burlington Northern Railroad, which in turn merged with the Santa Fe Railway to become the BNSF Railway in 1996. Map of NPR Land Grant, c1890 chartered the Northern Pacific Railway Company on July 2, 1864, with the goals of connecting the Great Lakes with Puget Sound on the Pacific, opening vast new lands for farming, ranching, lumbering and mining, and linking Washington and Oregon to the rest of the country.[1] granted the railroad a potential 60 million acres (243,000 km2) of land in exchange for building rail transportation to an undeveloped territory. Josiah Perham was elected its first president on December 7, 1864.[1] It could not use all the land and in the end took just under 40 million acres.[2] Cooke takes control[edit] the next six years, backers of the road struggled to find financing. Though John Gregory Smith succeeded Perham as president on January 5, 1865, groundbreaking did not take place until February 15, 1870, at Carlton, Minnesota, 25 miles (40 km) west of Duluth, Minnesota. backing and promotions of famed financier Jay Cooke in the summer of 1870 brought the first real momentum to the company. The Minnetonka. Over the course of 1871, the Northern Pacific pushed westward from Minnesota into present-day North Dakota. Surveyors and construction crews had to maneuver through swamps, bogs, and tamarack forests. The difficult terrain and insufficient funding delayed by six months the construction phase in Minnesota.[3] NP also began building its line north from Kalama, Washington Territory, on the Columbia River outside of Portland, Oregon, towards Puget Sound. small construction engines were purchased, the Minnetonka, Itaska, Ottertail and St. Cloud, the first of which was shipped to Kalama by ship around Cape Horn. Minnesota, the Lake Superior and Mississippi Railroad completed construction of its 155-mile (249 km) line stretching from Saint Paul to Lake Superior at Duluth in 1870. It was leased to the Northern Pacific in 1876, and was eventually absorbed by the Northern Pacific. The North Coast Limited was the Northern Pacific's flagship train and the Northern Pacific itself was built along the trail first blazed by Lewis and Clark.[4] Preferred Shares of the Northern Pacific Railroad Company, issued 28. November 1881 Northern Pacific reached Fargo, Dakota Territory (N.D.), early in June 1872. The following year, in June 1873, the N.P. reached the shores of the Missouri River, at Edwinton (Bismarck) D.T. In the west, the track extended 25 miles (40 km) north from Kalama. Surveys were carried out in North Dakota protected by 600 troops under General Winfield Scott Hancock. Headquarters and shops were established in Brainerd, Minnesota, a town named for the President John Gregory Smith's wife Anna Elizabeth Brainerd. A severe stock market crash and financial collapse after 1873, led by the Credit Mobilier Scandal and the Union Pacific Railroad fraud, stopped further railroad building for twelve years. 1886, the company put down 164 miles (264 km) of main line across North Dakota, with an additional 45 miles (72 km) in Washington. November 1, General George Washington Cass became the third president of the company. Cass had been a vice-president and director of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and would lead the Northern Pacific through some of its most difficult times. on survey parties and construction crews by Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Kiowa warriors in North Dakota and Minnesota became so prevalent that the company received protection from units of the U.S. Army.[5] 1886, the Northern Pacific also opened colonization offices in Germany and Scandinavia, attracting farmers with cheap package transportation and purchase deals. The success of the NP was based on the abundant crops of wheat and other grains and the attraction to settlers of the Red River Valley along the Minnesota-North Dakota border between 1881 and 1890.[6] Northern Pacific reached Dakota Territory at Fargo in 1872, and began its career as one of the central factors in the economic growth of North Dakota. The climate, although very cold, was suitable for wheat, which was in high demand in the cities of the United States and Europe. Most of the settlers were German and Scandinavian immigrants who bought the land cheaply, and raised large families. They shipped huge quantities of wheat to Minneapolis, while buying all sorts of equipment and home supplies to be shipped in by rail.[7] NP used its federal land grants as security to borrow money to build its system.[8] federal government kept every other section of land, and gave it away free to homesteaders. first the railroad sold much of its holdings at low prices to land speculators in order to realize quick cash profits, and also to eliminate sizable annual tax bills. 1905 the railroad company's land policies changed, after it was judged a costly mistake to have sold much of the land at wholesale prices. better railroad service and improved methods of farming the Northern Pacific easily sold what had been heretofore "worthless" land directly to farmers at good prices. 1910 the railroad's holdings in North Dakota had been greatly reduced.[9][10] of 1873 and first bankruptcy[edit] 1873, Northern Pacific made impressive strides before a terrible stumble. Rails from the east reached the Missouri River on June 4. After several years of study, Tacoma, Washington, was selected as the road's western terminus on July 14, 1873. the previous three years the financial house of Jay Cooke and Company had been throwing money into the construction of the Northern Pacific. As with many western transcontinentals, the staggering costs of building a railroad into a vast wilderness had been drastically underestimated. Cooke had little success in marketing the bonds in Europe and overextended his house in meeting overdrafts of the mounting construction costs. Cooke overestimated his managerial skills and failed to appreciate the limits of a banker's ability to be also a promoter, and the danger of freezing his assets in the bonds of the Northern Pacific.[11] and Company went bankrupt on September 18, 1873. Soon the Panic of 1873 engulfed the United States, beginning an economic depression that ruined or nearly paralyzed newer railroads. Northern Pacific survived bankruptcy that year, due to austerity measures put in place by President Cass. In fact, working with last-minute loans from Director John C. Ainsworth of Portland, the Northern Pacific completed the line from Kalama to Tacoma (110 miles (180 km)) before the end of 1873. On December 16, the first steam train arrived in Tacoma. But in 1874 the company was moribund.[clarification needed] Pacific slipped into its first bankruptcy on June 30, 1875. Cass resigned to become receiver of the company, and Charles Barstow Wright became its fourth president. Frederick Billings, namesake of Billings, Montana, formulated a reorganization plan which was put into effect. 1874 to 1876, elements of the 7th Cavalry Regiment under the command of Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer operating out of Forts Abraham Lincoln and Rice in Dakota Territory conducted expeditions to protect the railroad survey and construction crews in Dakota and Montana Territories.[citation needed] Billings and first reorganization[edit] 1877, construction resumed in a small way. Northern Pacific pushed a branch line southeast from Tacoma to Puyallup, Washington and on to the coal fields around Wilkeson, Washington. Much of the coal was destined for export through Tacoma to San Francisco, California, where it would be thrown into the fireboxes of Central Pacific Railroad steam engines. small amount of construction was one of the largest projects the company would undertake in the years between 1874 and 1880. That same year the company built a large shop complex at Edison, Washington (now part of south Tacoma). For many years the shops at Brainerd and Edison would carry out heavy repairs and build equipment for the railroad. May 24, 1879, Frederick H. Billings became the president of the company. Billings' tenure would be short but ferocious. Reorganization, bond sales, and improvement in the U.S. economy allowed Northern Pacific to strike out across the Missouri River by letting a contract to build 100 miles (160 km) of railroad west of the river. The railroad's new-found strength, however, would be seen as a threat in certain quarters. Henry Villard, Gold Creek, Gold Spike[edit] Yellowstone Park Line Brochure 1904 and Transcontinental stock owned by Henry Villard. journalist Henry Villard had raised capital for western railroads in Europe from 1871 to 1873. After returning to New York in 1874 he invested on behalf of his clients in railroads in Oregon. Through Villard's work, most of these lines became properties of the European creditors' holding company, the Oregon and Transcontinental Company. the lines held by the Oregon and Transcontinental, the most important was the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which ran east from Portland along the left bank of the Columbia River to a connection with the Union Pacific Railroad's Oregon Short Line at the confluence of the Columbia River and the Snake River near Wallula, Washington. a decade of his return, Villard was head of a transportation empire in the Pacific Northwest that had but one real competitor, the Northern Pacific. The Northern Pacific's completion threatened the holdings of Villard in the Northwest, and especially in Portland. Portland would become a second-class city if the Puget Sound ports at Tacoma and Seattle, Washington, were connected to the East by rail. who had been building a monopoly of river and rail transportation in Oregon for several years, now launched a daring raid. Using his European connections and a reputation for having "bested" Jay Gould in a battle for control of the Kansas Pacific years before, Villard solicited – and raised – $8,000,000 from his associates. This was his famous "Blind Pool," Villard's associates were not told what the money would be used for. In this case, the funds were used to purchase control of the Northern Pacific. a tough fight, Billings and his backers were forced to capitulate; he resigned the presidency June 9, 1881. Ashbel H. Barney, former President of Wells Fargo & Company, served briefly as interim caretaker of the railroad from June 19 to September 15, when Villard was elected president by the stockholders. For the next two years, Villard and the Northern Pacific rode the whirlwind. 1882, 360 miles (580 km) of main line and 368 miles (592 km) of branch line were completed, bringing totals to 1,347 miles (2,168 km) and 731 miles (1,176 km), respectively. October 10, 1882, the line from Wadena, Minnesota, to Fergus Falls, Minnesota, opened for service. The Missouri River was bridged with a million-dollar span on October 21, 1883. Until then, crossing of the Missouri had had to be managed with a ferry service for most of the year; in winter, when ice was thick enough, rails were laid across the river itself. Herman Haupt, another veteran of the Civil War and the Pennsylvania Railroad, organized the Northern Pacific Beneficial Association in 1881. A forerunner of the modern health maintenance organization, the NPBA ultimately established a series of four hospitals across the system in Saint Paul, Minnesota; Glendive, Montana; Missoula, Montana; and Tacoma, Washington, to care for employees, retirees, and their families. January 15, 1883, the first train reached Livingston, Montana, at the eastern foot of Bozeman Pass. Livingston, like Brainerd and South Tacoma before it, would grow to encompass a large backshop handling heavy repairs for the railroad. It would also mark the east–west dividing line on the Northern Pacific system. pushed hard for the completion of the Northern Pacific in 1883. His crews laid an average of a mile and half (2.4 km) of track each day. In early September, the line neared completion. celebrate, and to gain national publicity for investment opportunities in his region, Villard chartered four trains to carry guests from the East to Gold Creek in western Montana. No expense was spared and the list of dignitaries included Frederick Billings, Ulysses S. Grant, and Villard's in-laws, the family of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison. On September 8, the Gold Spike was driven near Gold Creek.[12] to Puget Sound[edit] fall was swifter than his ascendancy. Like Jay Cooke, he was now consumed by the enormous costs of constructing the railroad. Street bears attacked the stock shortly after the Golden Spike, after the realization that the Northern Pacific was a very long road with very little business. himself suffered a nervous breakdown in the days after the driving of the Golden Spike, and he left the presidency of the Northern Pacific in January 1884. the presidency of the Northern Pacific was handed to a professional railroader, Robert Harris, former head of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad. For the next four years, until the return of the Villard group, Harris worked at improving the property and ending its tangled relationship with the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. the mid-1880s, the Northern Pacific pushed to reach Puget Sound directly, rather than by means of a roundabout route that followed the Columbia River. of the Cascade Mountains, carried out intermittently since the 1870s, began anew. Virgil Bogue, a veteran civil engineer, was sent to explore the Cascades again. On March 19, 1881, he discovered Stampede Pass. 1883, John W. Sprague, the head of the new Pacific Division, drove the Golden Spike to mark the beginning of the railroad from what would become Kalama, Washington. He resigned a months later due to impaired health. 1884, after the departure of Villard, the Northern Pacific began building toward Stampede Pass from Wallula in the east and the area of Wilkeson in the west. By the end of the year, rails had reached Yakima, Washington in the east. A 77-mile (124 km) gap remained in 1886. January of that year, Nelson Bennett was given a contract to construct a 9,850-foot (1.866 mi; 3.00 km) tunnel under Stampede Pass. The contract specified a short amount of time for completion, and a large penalty if the deadline were missed. While crews worked on the tunnel, the railroad built a temporary switchback route across the pass. With numerous timber trestles and grades which approached six percent, the temporary line required two M class 2-10-0s — the two largest locomotives in the world (at that time) — to handle a tiny five-car train. On May 3, 1888, crews holed through the tunnel, and on May 27 the first train passed through directly to Puget Sound. and the Panic of 1893[edit] this success, the Northern Pacific, like many U.S. roads, was living on borrowed time. From 1887 until 1893, Henry Villard returned to the board of directors. Though offered the presidency, he refused. An associate of Villard dating back to his time on the Kansas Pacific, Thomas Fletcher Oakes, assumed the presidency on September 20, 1888. an effort to garner business, Oakes pursued an aggressive policy of branch line expansion. addition, the Northern Pacific experienced the first competition in the form of James Jerome Hill and his Great Northern Railway. The Great Northern, like the Northern Pacific before it, was pushing west from the Twin Cities towards Puget Sound, and would be completed in 1893. sparse traffic, and the Panic of 1893 sounded the death knell for the Northern Pacific and Villard's interest in railroading. The company slipped into its second bankruptcy on October 20, 1893. Oakes was named receiver and Brayton Ives, a former chairman of the New York Stock Exchange, became president. labor dispute[edit] 1894, the 10th Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army was involved in protecting property of the Northern Pacific Railroad from striking workers.[13] Villard to Morganization[edit] the next three years, the Villard-Oakes interests and the Ives interest feuded for control of the Northern Pacific. Oakes was eventually forced out as receiver, but not before three separate courts were claiming jurisdiction over the Northern Pacific's bankruptcy. Things came to a head in 1896, when first Edward Dean Adams was appointed president, then less than two months later, Edwin Winter. the task of straightening out the muddle of the Northern Pacific was turned over to J. P. Morgan. Morganization of the Northern Pacific, a process which befell many U.S. roads in the wake of the Panic of 1893, was handed to Morgan lieutenant Charles Henry Coster. The new president, beginning September 1, 1897, was Charles Sanger Mellen.[14] James J. Hill had purchased an interest in the Northern Pacific during the troubled days of 1896, Coster and Mellen would advocate, and follow, a staunchly independent line for the Northern Pacific for the next four years. Only the early death of Coster from overwork, and the promotion of Mellen to head the Morgan-controlled New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in 1903, would bring the Northern Pacific closer to the orbit of James J. Hill.[15] Map of Northern Pacific's route circa 1900. Hill, Harriman and the Northern Pacific Corner[edit] the late 1880s, the Villard regime, in another one of its costly missteps, attempted to stretch the Northern Pacific from the Twin Cities to the all-important rail hub of Chicago, Illinois. A costly project was begun in creating a union station and terminal facilities for a Northern Pacific which had yet to arrive. than build directly down to Chicago, perhaps following the Mississippi River as the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy had done, Villard chose to lease the Wisconsin Central. Some backers of the Wisconsin Central had long associations with Villard, and an expensive lease was worked out between the two companies which was only undone by the Northern Pacific's second bankruptcy. ultimate result was that the Northern Pacific was left without a direct connection to Chicago, the primary interchange point for most of the large U.S. railroads. Fortunately, the Northern Pacific was not alone. James J. Hill, controller of the Great Northern Railway, which was completed between the Twin Cities and Puget Sound in 1893, also lacked a direct connection to Chicago. Hill went looking for a road with an existing route between the Twin Cities and Chicago which could be rolled into his holdings and give him a stable path to that important interchange. the same time, E. H. Harriman, head of the Union Pacific Railroad, was also looking for a road which could connect his company to Chicago. The road both Harriman and Hill looked at was the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy. Harriman, the Burlington was a road which paralleled much of his own, and offered tantalizing direct access to Chicago. For Hill as well, there was the possibility of a high-speed link directly with Chicago. Though the Burlington did not parallel the Great Northern or the Northern Pacific, it would give them a powerful railroad in the central West. was the first to approach the Burlington's aging leader, the irascible Charles Elliott Perkins. The price for control of the Burlington, as set by Perkins, was $200 a share, more than Harriman was willing to pay. met the price, and control of the Burlington was divided equally at about 48.5 percent each between the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific. to be outdone, Harriman now came up with a crafty plan: Buy a controlling interest in the Northern Pacific and use its power on the Burlington to place friendly directors upon its board. On May 3, 1901, Harriman began his stock raid which would become known as the Northern Pacific Corner. the end of the day he was short just 40,000 shares of common stock. Harriman placed an order to cover this, but was overridden by his broker, Jacob Schiff, of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. on the other hand, reached the vacationing Morgan in Italy and managed to place an order for 150,000 shares of common stock. Though Harriman might be able to control the preferred stock, Hill knew the company bylaws allowed for the holders of the common stock to vote to retire the preferred. three days the Harriman-Hill imbroglio managed to wreak havoc on the stock market. Northern Pacific stock was quoted at $150 a share on May 6, and is reported to have traded as much as $1,000 a share behind the scenes. Harriman and Hill now worked to settle the issue for brokers to avoid panic. Hill, for his part, attempted to avoid future stock raids by placing his holdings in the Northern Securities Company, a move which would be undone by the Supreme Court in 1904 under the auspices of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. was not immune either; he was forced to break up his holdings in the Union Pacific Railroad and the Southern Pacific Railroad a few years later. Hill to Howard Elliott[edit] 1903, Hill finally got his way with the House of Morgan. Howard Elliott, another veteran of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, became president of the Northern Pacific on October 23. Elliott was a relative of the Burlington's crusty chieftain Charles Elliott Perkins, and more distantly the Burlington's great backer, John Murray Forbes. He had spent 20 years in the trenches of Midwest railroading, where rebates, pooling, expansion and rate wars had brought ruinous competition. Having seen the effects of having multiple railroads attempt to serve the same destination, he was very much in tune with James J. Hill's philosophy of "community of interest," a loose affiliation or collusion among roads in an attempt to avoid duplicating routes, rate wars, weak finances and ultimately bankruptcies and reorganizations. would be left to make peace with the Hill-controlled Great Northern; the Harriman-controlled Union Pacific; and, between 1907 and 1909, the last of the northern transcontinentals, the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad, more commonly known as the Milwaukee Road. A Northern Pacific train travels over Bozeman Pass in June 1939 the twentieth century[edit] the turn of the century the Northern Pacific had a record of steady improvement. Together with the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific also gained control of the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, gaining important access to Chicago, the central Middle West and Texas, as well as the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway, an important route through eastern and southern Washington. physical plant was upgraded continuously, with double-tracking in key areas, and automatic block signaling along its entire main line. This in turn gave way to centralized traffic control, microwave and radio communications as time progressed.[citation needed] Northern Pacific maintained and continuously upgraded its equipment and service. The road helped pioneer the 4-8-4 Northern type steam engine and the 2-8-8-4 Yellowstone. was among the first railroads in the country to adopt diesel power beginning with General Motors’ FTs in 1944.[citation needed] Despite this, with cheap (albeit low-quality) coal reserves in Wyoming it was among the last US railroads to complete dieselization, in 1960. NP depot at Wallace, Idaho, 2007 Northern Pacific's premier passenger train, the North Coast Limited was among the safest and finest in the nation, suffering only one passenger fatality in nearly seventy years of operation.[citation needed] 1900, most of the remaining land-grant holdings were located west of Montana, in the "western district." railroad still hoped to sell this land, both to provide operating funds and to populate the region to provide new markets to sustain the railroad. Nearly all the good farm land had been sold, leaving large tracts of grazing land or timber. The grazing acreage was poor quality, and difficult to sell. However, the timber lands were of high quality; much of these were sold to Frederick Weyerhaeuser.[16] of the Hill Lines[edit] later years, Louis W. Menk became president of the Northern Pacific, and then he brought it together with the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, the Great Northern Railway, and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway on March 2, 1970, to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. The merger was allowed despite a challenge in the Supreme Court, essentially reversing the outcome of the 1904 Northern Securities ruling. A 900 mi (1,400 km) portion of the former Northern Pacific mainline in Montana was spun off and is now operated by Montana Rail Link. Revenue freight traffic, in millions of net ton-miles (including M&I, G&P) Year Traffic 1925 6852 1933 3600 1944 14679 1960 11360 1967 13629 Source: ICC annual reports 1949, the Northern Pacific's headquarters in Saint Paul presided over a system of 6,889 miles (11,087 km), which 2,831 miles (4,556 km) of main line, 4,057 miles (6,529 km) of branch line under seven operating divisions. Superior[edit] in Duluth, Minnesota, the Lake Superior Division's main routes were from Duluth to Ashland, Wisconsin, Duluth to Staples, Minnesota, and Duluth to White Bear Lake, Minnesota. The division encompassed 631 route miles; 356 in main line and 274 in branches. Paul[edit] in St. Paul, Minnesota in the company's Railroad and Bank Building, the St. Paul Division's main routes were from Saint Paul to Staples, Saint Paul to White Bear Lake, and Staples to Dilworth, Minnesota. The division encompassed 909 route miles; 310 in main line and 599 in branches. in Fargo, North Dakota, the Fargo Division's main routes were from Dilworth to Mandan, North Dakota. The division encompassed 1,167 route miles; 216 in main line and 951 in branches. in Glendive, Montana, the Yellowstone Division's main routes were from Mandan, North Dakota, to Billings, Montana, and from Billings to Livingston, Montana. The division encompassed 875 route miles; 546 in main line and 328 in branches. Mountain[edit] in Missoula, Montana, the Rocky Mountain main routes were from Livingston to Paradise, Montana via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, from Logan, Montana, to Garrison, Montana, via Butte, Montana, and Homestake Pass. division encompassed 892 route miles; 563 in main line and 330 in branches. It was home to the principal central district repair facility at Livingston, Montana. in Spokane, Washington, the Idaho Division's main routes were from Paradise, Mont., to Yakima, Washington, via Pasco, Washington. The division encompassed 1,123 route miles; 466 in main line and 657 in branches. in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17] the railroad expanded, immigrants, families, and single men moved to the Pacific Northwest. Tacoma's population grew rapidly: in 1880 there were 1,098 residents, and in 1889 there were 36,000.[18] service[edit] line encouraged people to make their homes in the Pacific Northwest by having an "immigration agent" and offering special excursion trains for prospective buyers during the winter months. North Coast Limited was the premier passenger train operated by the Northern Pacific Railway between Chicago and Seattle via Butte, Montana and Homestake Pass. It commenced service on April 29, 1900, served briefly as a Burlington Northern train after the merger on March 2, 1970, and ceased operation on April 30, 1971, the day before Amtrak began service. The Chicago Union Station to Saint Paul leg of the train's route was operated by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad along its Mississippi River mainline through Wisconsin. Northern Pacific's secondary transcontinental passenger train was the Alaskan, until it was replaced by the Mainstreeter on November 16, 1952.[19][page needed] Mainstreeter, which operated via Helena, Montana and Mullan Pass, continued in service through the Burlington Northern merger until Amtrak Day (May 1, 1971). It had been reduced to a Saint Paul to Seattle train after the last run of the former Burlington Route Black Hawk on April 12–13, 1970. Northern Pacific also participated in the Coast Pool Train service between Portland and Seattle with the Great Northern Railway and the Union Pacific Railroad. NP and GN Coast Pool Trains lasted until Amtrak. were several other passenger trains which were discontinued before the Burlington Northern merger. These included: Saint Paul to International Falls, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Duluth, Minnesota (which at one time was also a pool operation, with Great Northern Railway and the Soo Line); Duluth to Staples, Minnesota; Saint Paul to Jamestown, North Dakota (the last remnant of the Alaskan); Fargo, North Dakota to Winnipeg, Manitoba; The Route of "the Great Big Baked Potato"[edit] Actress Lillian Russell and other Hollywood stars were hired to promote the railroad's potatoes. comic postcard circa 1910 to 1920 promoting "The Great Big Baked Potato". Hazen Titus was appointed as the line's dining car superintendent in 1908. He learned that Yakima Valley farmers were unable to sell their potato crops because the potatoes they were growing were simply too large; they fed them to the hogs. Titus learned that a single potato could weigh from two to five pounds, but that smaller potatoes were preferred by the end buyers of the vegetable because many people considered large potatoes inedible due to their thick, rough skin.[20] and his staff discovered the "inedible" potatoes were delicious after baking in a slow oven. He contracted to purchase as many potatoes as the farmers could produce that were more than two pounds in weight. Soon after the first delivery of "Netted Gem Bakers", they were offered to diners on the North Coast Limited beginning in early 1909. Word of the line's specialty offering traveled quickly, and before long it was using "the Great Big Baked Potato" as a slogan to promote the railroad's passenger service. Hollywood stars were hired to promote it.[21] When an addition was built for the Northern Pacific's Seattle commissary in 1914, a Railway Age reporter wrote, "A large trade mark, in the shape of a baked potato, 40 ft. long and 18 ft. in diameter, surmounts the roof. The potato is electric lighted and its eyes, through the electric mechanism, are made to wink constantly. A cube of butter thrust into its split top glows intermittently." Premiums such as postcards, letter openers, and spoons were also produced to promote "The Route of the Great Big Baked Potato"; the slogan served the Northern Pacific for about 50 years.[20]

Wallula, Washington
Wallula, Washington;

Phillipsburg, MT
Phillipsburg, MT;

Rock Creek, MT, Phillipsburgs River

Missoula, MT

Stevensville, MT

Darby, MT

Grantsdale, MT

Conner, MT

Bitterroot River

Rocky Mt Division, Missoula to Darby and Connor, MT, NP Railroad

Kooskia, ID

Lolo, MT

Lolo Hot Springs, MT

Lolo Pass, Idaho

Lolo Pass to Moscow, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

Syringa, ID

NP Railroad, Rocky Mt Division - Paradise to Mullan Pass

Mullan Pass, ID

Coeur d'Alene, ID

Gravelles, WA

Wilbur, WA

Almira, WA

Coulee City, WA

HWY 2 Loop Cheney Cooley City Vanage, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

Okanogan, WA

Brewster, WA

Oroville, WA and Canadian Border to Kelowna and Vernon on the Okanogan Lake
Oroville, WA and Canadian Border

Okanogan River, Orville to Okanogan, Brewster, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

George, WA

Regis, MT

Lookout Pass, MT ID

Mullan, ID

Wallace, ID

Burke, ID

Wardner, ID

Greer, ID

Potlatch, ID

Moscow, Potlatch, Palouse, Colfax, Spokane Div, NP Railroad

Culdesac, ID

Lapwai, ID

Lewiston, ID

NP Railroad, Spokane Division, Lolo Pass to Lewiston to Moscow

Kendrick, ID

Moscow, ID

Troy, ID

Pullman, WA

Colfax, WA

Rosalia, WA

Spangle, WA

Genesee, ID

Pomeroy, WA

Dayton, WA

Waitsburg, WA

Walla Walla, WA

NP Railroad, Spokane Division, LewistonID to Walla Walla and Wallula, WA

Pendleton, OR

Pasco to Pendleton via Umatilla, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

Umatilla, OR

Bolles, WA

Riverside, WA

Eureka, WA

NP Railroad, Spokane Division, Bolles, WA to Pasco, WA

Lind to George and Vantage, Spokane Division, NP Railroad

Status Pass, WA

Willapa, WA

Wilappa River, Raymond, Wilappa, Tacoma Division, NP Railroad

Lebam, WA

Pe Ell, WA

Chehalis, WA

Kalama, WA

Kelso, WA

Vancouver, WA

Portland, OR
in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17]

Grays Harbor, WA

Cosmopolis, WA

Aberdeen, WA

Grays Harbor to Chahalis thru Gate City, Tacoma Division, NP Railroad

Gate City, WA

Gate City to Olympia to Tacoma, NP Railroad

Olympia, WA

Centralia, WA

Tenino, WA

Rainier, WA

Roy, WA

Portland to Tacoma, Tacoma Division, Northern Pacific Railroad
in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17]

Orting, WA

Puyallup, WA

Seattle, WA

Gilman, WA

Woodinville, WA

Seattle to Sumas, US Canada Border, Tacoma Division, NP Railroad
in Tacoma, Washington, the Tacoma Division's main routes were from Yakima to Stuck Junction, near future Auburn, Washington, Seattle, Washington to Sumas, Washington, on the border with British Columbia, Canada, and from Seattle to Portland, Oregon. The division encompassed 1,034 route miles; 373 in main line and 661 in branches. It was home to the principal west end repair facility at South Tacoma, Washington.[17]

Nooksack River Folder

Acme, WA

Prarie Creek

Nooksack River Middle Fork

Sumas, WA

Sumas River Source, Sumas Mountain

Sumas River Mouth, Fraser River

Nooksack, WA

Sumas River

Nooksack River

Nooksack Cirque, North Fork Nooksack River

Nooksack River North Fork

Nooksack Falls

Welcome, WA

Nooksack River Mouth, Bellingham Bay
Nooksack River

Snohomish, WA

Arlington, WA

Darrington, WA

Hamilton and Darrington, Tacoma Division, NP Railroad

McMurray, WA

Sedro-Woolley, WA

Hamilton, WA

Skagit River

Acme, WAAcme, WA
Acme, WA

US, 1891-1938, JAMES WELDON JOHNSON, POET, Jacksonville, Florida, novels, poems, folklore, NYU, Fisk U, NCAA mass tactics
US, 1891-1938, JAMES WELDON JOHNSON, POET, Jacksonville, Florida (Saint Johns River Mouth), author, politician, diplomat, critic, journalist, poet, anthologist, educator, lawyer, songwriter, and early civil rights activist, novels, poems, folklore, first black at NYU, p at Fisk U, opposed northern race riots & southern lynchings with NCAA mass tactics, promoted Harlem Renaissance; Jacksonville, Florida; JAMES WELDON JOHNSON, POET, 1938, Commemorated June 25 ; Weldon Johnson (June 17, 1871 – June 26, 1938) was an American author, politician, diplomat, critic, journalist, poet, anthologist, educator, lawyer, songwriter, and early civil rights activist. is remembered best for his writing, which includes novels, poems, and collections of folklore. was also one of the first African-American professors at New York University. Later in life he was a professor of creative literature and writing at Fisk University. was born in Jacksonville, Florida, into a middle-class black family of Bahamian ancestry. graduated from Atlanta University and became the first African-American admitted to the Florida bar. 1906 to 1913 he was Consul in Venezuela and then Nicaragua; during this period he wrote the fictional Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. 1913 he returned to the U. S., lived in New York, and engaged initially in songwriting and the theater with his brother, but then became involved in political activism. the fall of 1916, because Johnson excelled as a reconciler of differences among those whose ideological agendas seemed to preclude unified, cooperative action, he was asked to become the national organizer for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). race riots in northern cities and the lynchings that pervaded the South during and immediately after the end of World War I, Johnson engaged the NAACP in mass tactics, such as a silent protest parade down New York's Fifth Avenue in which ten thousand African Americans took part on July 28, 1917. 1920 Johnson was elected to manage the NAACP, the first African American to hold this position. serving the NAACP from 1914 through 1930 Johnson started as an organizer and eventually became the first black male secretary in the organization's history. the 1920s he was one of the major inspirations and promoters of the Harlem Renaissance trying to refute condescending white criticism and helping young black authors to get published. serving in the NAACP Johnson was involved in sparking the drive behind the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill of 1921. the 1930's, he had tired of politics, and "retired" as Professor of Creative Literature and Writing at Fisk University. died in an automobile accident in Maine in 1938. — more at Wikipedia and the Poetry Foundation Johnson is well-known as a poet and author. Some of his published works include: * To a Friend (1892) * A Brand (1893) * The Color Sergeant (1898) * Lift Every Voice and Sing (1899) * Sence You Went Away (1900) * The Black Mammy (1900) * O Black and Unknown Bards (1908) * Brothers (1916) * Fifty Years and Other Poems (1917) * The Creation (1919) * My City (1923) * God's Trombones: Seven Negro Sermons in Verse (1927) * Saint Peter Relates an Incident (1935) * The Glory of the Day was in Her Face * Complete Poems (2000) works and collections: * The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (1912/1927) * Self-Determining Haiti * Second Book of Negro Spirituals * Black Manhattan * Negro Americans, What Now? * Along This Way (autobiography) * Essential Writings of James Weldon Johnson

US, 1892-1937, Alexander Hotovitzky, Volhynia Seminary, New York, San Francisco, Moscow, special spark from God
Russia, Volhynia, 1892-1937, Alexander Hotovitzky, Volhynia, son of rector of V T Seminary, educated there and Petersburg T A, New York, San Francisco, special spark from God, preaching, Tikhon, US missionary, Uniates from his home, Philidelphia, Yonkers, Passaic, publisher, mutual aid, St Nik Cathedral, Finland, proselytic Lutherans, Moscow, Tikhon, struggle to save the nation, Civil War, brotherhood, alms for Cathedral, arrests, confiscations, chruch donations for starving, however Church forbad sacred vessels surrender, court cases counter-revolutionary activities, draft resolution guaratee for starving, deemed c-r, executions, acknowleged main organizer, milder verdict 10 yrs, amnesty, interrogation, exile to Turuhan r, return, protopresbyter to Sergius, rector on Donskoy st, light in his eyes, 1937 arrest and martyrdom; Alexander Hotovitzky (or Hotovitsky), hieromartyr of the Bolshevik yoke, Missionary of America, was a Ukrainian who came to the United States in the 1890s as a lay missionary and was ordained to the priesthood while there. was active as a missionary among the emigrated Uniates in the northeastern United States before being ordered back to Europe 1914. was to become vicar of the congregation of the Russian Embassy in Berlin. of the outbreak of the First World War he was instead nominated as vicar of the Orthodox congregation in Helsinki, Finland, then a part of imperial Russia. 1917 he was assigned to Christ the Savior Cathedral in Moscow. the Bolshevik coup he was subjected to many cruelties by the revolutionaries as he defended the Orthodox faith, his people, and church property. to many arrests and exile Father Alexander served his Church as best he could through these tumultuous times until after a final arrest he was executed during the Great Purge on August 19, 1937. glorification is celebrated on December 4. Kremenetz - Kremenetz city of Kremenetz district and rests 18 km north-east of the great Pochayiv Lavra ; Glorification of the Priestmartyr Alexander Hotovitzky, Commemorated December 4 ; New Martyr of Russia Alexander Hotovitzky was born on February 11, 1872 in the city of Kremenetz, into the pious family of Archpriest Alexander, who was Rector of the Volhynia Theological Seminary and would later be long remembered in the hearts of the Orthodox inhabitants of Volhynia as a good shepherd. Alexander received a good Christian upbringing from his parents, who instilled in him love for the Orthodox Church and for the people of God. future pastor was educated at the Volhynia Seminary and the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy, from which he graduated with a Master’s degree in 1895. graduation from the Academy, he was sent for missionary service to the Diocese of the Aleutians and North America, where he was assigned to the position of reader at the newly-established Saint Nicholas Orthodox Church in New York City. his marriage to Maria Scherbuhina, a graduate of the Pavlovsk Institute in Saint Petersburg, the Hieromartyr Alexander was ordained to the diaconate, and soon after, on February 25, 1896, to the priesthood by Bishop Nicholas (Ziorov) of the Aleutians, whom Father Alexander would always later remember with gratitude and love. ordination took place at the diocesan cathedral in San Francisco. In his address to the newly-ordained Father Alexander, Bishop Nicholas explained his selection of the new priest for ordained ministry in these words: “Your special sense of decency, your good upbringing, your noble idealism, and your sincere piety immediately caused me to look favorably upon you and compelled me to single you out among the young people, with whom you used to visit me in Saint Petersburg... could see that you had that special spark from God, which makes any service an action truly done for God’s sake, and without which a vocation becomes soul-less and dead work... first experience in preaching has shown you the power of this kind of inspiration: you saw how the people gathered around you and how attentively they stood and listened at length to your discourses... Why did these people listen to you rather than going to hear other preachers? Clearly the spark which burns within you attracts the hearts of these people like a magnet.” week after his ordination, the young priest returned to New York to assume the pastorate of the parish where he had previously served as reader. From 1898 to 1907, the New Martyr Alexander served as a pastor under the omophorion of Bishop Tikhon. Tikhon, who, in the tragic year of 1917, was to be elevated by Divine Providence to the primatial see as Patriarch of Moscow, valued highly Father Alexander’s sincere piety, his gift of pastoral love, and his multifaceted theological erudition. spectrum of his activity in the United States was quite broad and very fruitful. He was successful in missionary service, primarily among Uniates newly-emigrated from Galicia and Carpathian Rus. was also one of the closest collaborators of the Orthodox archpastors in America and represented the Orthodox Church before American religious institutions and meetings. Alexander’s missionary work was not without many temptations and sorrows. later Metropolitan, Platon (Rozhdestvensky) expressed gratitude for the Passion-bearer Alexander’s labors in America in an address delivered at the Divine Liturgy on February 26, 1914. Bidding farewell to Father Alexander, the Archbishop said, “One morning, during the years we worked together, you came to my room and, without saying much, unbuttoned your shirt, revealing a very large, bluish, bloody abrasion on your chest. That wound from a fanatic, who in a fit of rage attacked you wildly with a stick, followed the meeting of Russian people at which you had encouraged your own ethnic brother to renounce the pernicious Unia with Rome... My entire being was shaken to the core and I was profoundly moved, for before me at that moment was a genuine example of witness for Christ.” Father Alexander’s efforts, Orthodox parishes were established in Philadelphia, Yonkers, and Passaic as well as other large and small towns throughout North America. The parishioners of these churches were cradle Orthodox whom fate had brought to the New World, as well as Carpatho-Russians converted from the Unia and former Protestant converts to the Orthodox Church. important contribution to the witness of the truth of Orthodoxy before heterodox American society was made by the American Orthodox Messenger, which was published in English and Russian under Father Alexander’s editorship. Articles by the editor regularly appeared in this journal. New Martyr Alexander actively participated in the establishment of an Orthodox diocesan mutual aid society and at various times, he served as treasurer, first secretary, and president of this organization. The society provided material aid to Austrian Carpatho-Russians, Macedonian Slavs, Russian troops in Manchuria, and to Russian prisoners of war in Japanese camps. Alexander also took upon himself the ascetical burden of constructing the architecturally remarkable and majestic Saint Nicholas Cathedral in New York to replace the small parish church. cathedral was to become an adornment of the city. He visited Orthodox communities throughout America soliciting funds for the construction of the Cathedral. 1901, he also traveled to his homeland, Russia, for this purpose. the annals of Saint Nicholas Church, which in 1903 became the diocesan Cathedral, it is recorded that, “This Cathedral was established and constructed in the City of New York in North America, under the supervision and through the efforts and labors of the most honorable Archpriest Father Alexander Hotovitzky in the year of Our Lord 1902.” February 26, 1906, Orthodox America celebrated the tenth anniversary of priestly service of Archpriest Alexander, one of its most remarkable pastors. Bishop Tikhon greeted the jubilarian with these words: “As you remember your ordination as a priest of God at this anniversary, you are doubtless unwillingly contemplating how you have used your God-given talents, and asking yourself if the Grace of God was bestowed on you in vain and how far you have advanced on the path of moral perfection. you judge yourself in this way, you are at the same time the judge and the accused. In order for a judgment to be fair, the testimony of onlookers, the witnesses, must be heard. Now they are speaking before you—listen to them. Thanks be to the Lord! We just heard their eloquent and heartfelt testimony praising you. myself as your superior, I can testify that you have proven to be trustworthy, and have justified the expectations which were hoped for at your ordination.” sacrificial and dedicated pastoral service of the New Martyr Alexander in America was concluded on February 26, 1914, exactly eighteen years after his ordination to the priesthood. his farewell address, Father Alexander said, “Farewell, American Orthodox Rus—my dear Mother, the Holy American Church. I, your ever-grateful son, bow fully to the ground before you. You gave birth to me spiritually, you nurtured me, from your depths you inspired me by your strength. Through the shining witness of your founders, through the enlightened apostolic teachings of your preachers, through the fervor of your faithful flock, you have given me the greatest possible joy—to be your son.” 1914 to 1917, Father Alexander served as a priest in Helsinki, Finland, where the majority of the population was Protestant. Finland was then part of the Russian Empire, the Orthodox clergy there had to exert great efforts to protect the Orthodox Karelians from the proselytic expansionism of the Finnish Lutherans. In Finland, the New Martyr Alexander was a loyal, active, and dedicated assistant to his archpastor—Sergius (Stragorodsky), the future Patriarch. August 1917, Archpriest Alexander was transferred to Moscow and assigned as assistant pastor of Christ the Savior Cathedral. Here he was again under the direct guidance of Saint Tikhon, with whom he had already been closely associated in America. Passion-bearer Alexander participated in the deliberations of the Church Council of 1917-18. When the Council discussed the drafting of a message to the Orthodox flock concerning elections to the State Council, he stated that, as the fate of Russia was at stake, the Church and the Council in particular should not shy away from the struggle to save the nation. about the efforts of the Council to upbuild the Church, he outlined his preliminary plans for order and healing in the internal life of the Church and stated with some bitterness, “It seems as if there were builders who were furiously preparing blueprints, plans and so forth for the construction of an edifice and at the same time were calmly observing the destruction brick by brick of this edifice by enemies.” the difficult years of the Civil War, the New Martyr Alexander collaborated closely with Saint Tikhon in the administration of the Moscow diocese. 1918, under the spiritual leadership of the rector, Father Nicholas Arseniev, and the assistant pastor, Father Alexander, a brotherhood affiliated with Christ the Savior Cathedral was established. As its first activity, the brotherhood issued an appeal to the Orthodox flock, which Father Alexander helped write. document stated, “People of Russia! Christ the Savior Cathedral, the adornment of Moscow, the pride of Russia, the joy of the Orthodox Church has been condemned to slow destruction. This glorious monument to the great exploits of Russian warriors, who gave their lives for their native land and the Holy Orthodox Faith, has been denied state support...People of Russia! Will you really surrender this wonderful church of the Savior to mockery? it really true, as is claimed by the persecutors of the Holy Church, that the people of Russia no longer need holy things—Churches, sacraments, services, because all this is outdated and superstitious? Respond, you faithful! All of you, respond as one! Rise up and protect your holy things! May the generous and well-intentioned donations of the rich be added to the precious pennies of the faithful poor. Moscow, you are the heart of Russia! Preserve your holy shrine—your golden-domed Church of the Savior!...” response to this appeal, Orthodox inhabitants of Moscow joined the brotherhood of Christ the Savior Cathedral, and gave their alms to support the majestic church. service at that time was accompanied by much grief and danger. May 1920 and November 1921 Father Alexander was arrested for brief periods. He was accused of violating the decrees concerning the separation of the Church from the state, and the school from the Church, by holding church school for the children. 1922, the Church was subjected to harsh tribulations when, under the pretext of helping the starving, ecclesiastical treasures including sacred vessels, icons, and other holy things were violently confiscated by the state. the appeal of Her holy primate, the Orthodox Church made generous donations to assist the starving. when Saint Tikhon issued a statement to his flock throughout Russia forbidding the cooperation of the clergy in surrendering sacred vessels for non-ecclesiastical use based on canon law, slanderous campaign against the Church was begun in the press, Her primate was arrested, and a wave of court cases took place throughout Russia, in which servants of the Lord’s altar were accused of counter-revolutionary activity. During these trials many faithful servants of the Church of Christ were sentenced to death and shed their blood as hieromartyrs and martyrs. this difficult time for the Church, Father Alexander was unwaveringly guided by the statements of the Holy Patriarch to his flock and also followed his directives. to assist the starving were collected at Christ the Savior Cathedral. At the same time, measures were undertaken to protect the sacred objects of this church. of the clergy and parishioners of Christ the Savior Cathedral were held at Father Alexander’s apartment in order to draft a resolution of the general parish meeting concerning the state decree. draft of the resolution, prepared by Father Alexander, protested against the violent confiscation of church valuables. general meeting of parishioners was convened on March 23, 1922 at Christ the Savior Cathedral, presided by Archpriest Nicholas Arseniev. Alexander had already been arrested. meeting adopted the final text of the resolution, which demanded guarantees from the state that all donations be used to save the lives of the starving. The participants in the meeting protest the poisonous publications against the Church as well as insults against the hierarchy. The drafting of this document was deemed by the authorities to be criminal counter-revolutionary activity. two court cases against the Church, in Petrograd and Moscow, which resulted in the executions of hieromartyrs and martyrs, a new highly visible trial of clergy and laity began in Moscow on November 27, 1922, during which they were accused of supposedly “attempting to retain in their hands possession of church valuables and, through the resulting starvation, to topple the Soviet regime.” trial in this case were 105 clergy and laity. the main defendants were Archpriest Sergius Uspensky, dean of the second district of forty churches in Prechistenka, Archpriest Nicholas Arseniev, dean of Christ the Savior Cathedral, Archpriest Alexander Hotovitzky, assistant pastor of this Cathedral, Ilya Gromoglasov, priest of Christ the Savior Cathedral, Lev Evgenievich Anohin, warden of this Cathedral, and Archpriest Simeon Golubev, rector of Saint John the Warrior Church. most significant part of the indictment submitted to the Court concerned the activity of the clergy and laity of Christ the Savior Cathedral. indictment stated, “The main organizers and leaders of this criminal activity were Priest Hotovitzky, chairman of the council of parishes in this area, Priest Arseniev, rector of the Cathedral, Priest Zotikov, Priest Gromoglasov, former lawyer Kayutov, former deputy minister Shchepkin, the merchant Golovkin, and engineer Anohin. the decree of the Supreme Central Executive Committee concerning the confiscation of church valuables was issued, they began their preliminary activities under the leadership of the priest Hotovitzky, who repeated to secretly gather the above named people at his apartment in order to plan with them the measures which they proposed to enact to achieve their criminal intentions.” case was in court for two weeks. After the detailed indictment was read, questioning of the defendants began. Father Alexander remained cool and calm during the questioning as he tried to protect the other defendants. did not admit any guilt, stating, “I consider that it is not counter-revolutionary to ask for a corresponding amount of metal in return for church valuables.” the interrogation of all the defendants and witnesses, at the Court session on December 6, the later infamous, sinister prosecutor Vishinsky delivered the concluding statement for the prosecution. He asked the court for a sentence of capital punishment for thirteen defendants including Archpriests Alexander Hotovitzky, Nicholas Arseniev, Sergius Uspensky, Priest Ilya Gromoglasov, Abbess Vera (Pobedinskaya) of the Novodevichii Women’s Monastery and L.E. Anohin. Vishinsky requested that the other defendants be sentenced to prison terms of varying length. December 11, defendants were given an opportunity to say a final word to the court. his comments, Father Alexander attempted, first of all, to obtain the court’s leniency and mercy for his brother clergy, “I direct your attention to those who were at the meeting in my apartment: some of them are old and the others are very young and guilty of nothing. This was a completely ordinary meeting, it was not counter-revolutionary and it cannot by any means be characterized as a shady plot.” lengthiest final comments were delivered by the professor and priest Ilya Gromoglasov. This defendant attempted to gain the favor of the court by expounding on his former opposition to the Holy Synod. Concerning the conclusions of the prosecution, he said that he “knew nothing of the criminal organization headed by Hotovitzky.” December 13, the verdict of the revolutionary tribunal was announced. was milder than the bloodthirsty verdicts delivered at previous trials held in Petrograd and Moscow in conjunction with the confiscation of church valuables. of the main defendants—Abbess Vera (Pobedinskaya), Archpriest Sergius Uspensky, and Archpriest Alexander Hotovitzky were sentenced to ten years in prison, the confiscation of their personal property and the deprivation of their civil rights for five years. others were sentenced to lesser terms of imprisonment. Appeals for pardon, made by those who were sentenced to the longest terms of imprisonment, including that of Archpriest Alexander, were rejected by the presidium of the Supreme Central Executive Committee on February 16, 1923. the holy Patriarch Tikhon resumed his administration of the Church and made several statements regarding loyalty to the governmental authorities, many hierarchs, clergy, church leaders and laity, who had previously received sentences from the judiciary in conjunction with the confiscation of church valuables, were granted amnesty. Alexander was among those freed in October 1923. Following his liberation, he was not assigned to a parish but served by invitation at various churches in Moscow. remained free for only a short time. Already on September 4, 1924, E. Tuchkov, head of the 6th section of the Department of State Political Management, compiled a list of thirteen clergy and church leaders of Moscow and recommended that they be subjected to administrative exile. New Martyr Alexander, who was included in the list, was characterized as follows in this document, “A priest and preacher with a post-graduate education, very active, zealous and influential among the Tikhonites. His outlook is anti-Soviet.” September 9, 1924, the New Martyr Alexander was subjected to an interrogation. “In my religious convictions,” he said at that time, “I consider myself to be a Tikhonite. My relations with the Patriarch are intimate rather than just strictly administrative, but lately, I have avoided meeting with Patriarch Tikhon, as I felt that this might inconvenience him due to my conviction in conjunction with the confiscation of church valuables. I have never expressed an opinion concerning the restoration of the former government and such a thought has not even crossed my mind.” a decision of a special meeting of the administration of the Department of State Political Management, the New Martyr Alexander was exiled to the Turuhan region for a period of three years. His already failing health was further weakened by his sojourn in the far north. his return from exile, Father Alexander was raised to the rank of protopresbyter and became one of the closest assistants of the Deputy Locum Tenens of the Patriarchal Throne, Metropolitan (later Patriarch) Sergius, who knew him well since the time of his service in Finland. the 1930s, Protopresbyter Alexander served as rector of the Church of the Deposition of the Robe on Donskoy Street. One of the parishioners of this church recalls, “In 1936, Father Alexander did not preach, as he was apparently forbidden to do so. In 1936-7, I was present many times when Father Alexander served. He was a tall, gray-haired priest with gentle facial features, who looked extremely intelligent. Gray, trimmed hair, a small beard, very kind gray eyes, a high-pitched, loud tenor...pronounced exclamations distinctly and with inspiration...His appearance reminded me of many priests who were exiles from the western regions...Father Alexander had many parishioners who greatly revered him...Even today, I remember Father Alexander’s eyes. It seemed as if his glance penetrated your heart and embraced it with affection. I had the same feeling when I saw the holy Patriarch Tikhon...The same light also shining in Father Alexander’s eyes was testimony of his sanctity.” the fall of 1937, the New Martyr Alexander was arrested again. The documentary evidence about him at our disposal ends with this; however, a majority of oral reports testify to his death as a martyr. The Orthodox Church in America, on whose territory Protopresbyter Alexander served as a priest until 1914, venerates him as a passion-bearer, whose life as a confessor ended with sufferings for Christ. The place of his burial is unknown. Church of Russia also commemorates Saint Alexander on August 7, along with the Archpriests Alexei Vorobiev, Michael Plishevsky, John Voronets, the priests Demetrius Milovidov, and Peter Tokarev, the deacon Elisha Sholder, and Igumen Athanasius Egorov. photo gallery of the 1994 Glorification of Saint Alexander may be viewed here.

US, 1893-1897, President Grover Cleveland, honest, moral, unpopular but successful leader, policy maker
US President, 1893-1897 Grover Cleveland; Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837 – June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American history to serve two nonconsecutive terms in office.[b] He won the popular vote for three presidential elections—in 1884, 1888, and 1892—and was one of two Democrats (followed by Woodrow Wilson in 1912) to be elected president during the era of Republican presidential domination dating from 1861 to 1933. Born to a Presbyterian minister and his wife, Cleveland grew up in upstate New York. In 1881, he was elected mayor of Buffalo and later, governor of New York. Cleveland was the leader of the pro-business Bourbon Democrats who opposed high tariffs; Free Silver; inflation; imperialism; and subsidies to business, farmers, or veterans. His crusade for political reform and fiscal conservatism made him an icon for American conservatives of the era.[1] Cleveland won praise for his honesty, self-reliance, integrity, and commitment to the principles of classical liberalism.[2] He fought political corruption, patronage, and bossism. As a reformer, Cleveland had such prestige that the like-minded wing of the Republican Party, called "Mugwumps", largely bolted the GOP presidential ticket and swung to his support in the 1884 election.[3] As his second administration began, disaster hit the nation when the Panic of 1893 produced a severe national depression. It ruined his Democratic Party, opening the way for a Republican landslide in 1894 and for the agrarian and silverite seizure of the Democratic Party in 1896. The result was a political realignment that ended the Third Party System and launched the Fourth Party System and the Progressive Era.[4] was a formidable policymaker, and he also drew corresponding criticism. intervention in the Pullman Strike of 1894 to keep the railroads moving angered labor unions nationwide in addition to the party in Illinois; his support of the gold standard and opposition to Free Silver alienated the agrarian wing of the Democratic Party.[5] Critics complained that Cleveland had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic disasters—depressions and strikes—in his second term.[5] so, his reputation for probity and good character survived the troubles of his second term. Biographer Allan Nevins wrote, "[I]n Grover Cleveland, the greatness lies in typical rather than unusual qualities. He had no endowments that thousands of men do not have. He possessed honesty, courage, firmness, independence, and common sense. But he possessed them to a degree other men do not."[6] By the end of his second term, public perception showed him to be one of the most unpopular U.S. presidents, and he was by then rejected even by most Democrats.[7] Cleveland is considered by most historians to have been a successful leader, and has been praised for honesty, integrity, adherence to his morals and defying party boundaries, and effective leadership. He is generally ranked among the upper-mid tier of American presidents. DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19 ; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Anne Ayres of WILLIAM AUGUSTUS MUHLENBERG, PRIEST (8 APR 1877), [ANNE AYRES], RELIGIOUS (9 FEB 1896); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27;

US, 1893-1929, Charles Parham, PENTECOSTAL, American Pentecostalism, evidential tongues, holiness, divine healing
US, 1893-1929, Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Muscatine, Iowa (Rock River Mouth, Mississippi River 5), American Pentecostalism, evidential tongues, age 15 religious services 1888, preaching w direct inspiration, holiness movement, divine healing, prayer for sick, healing home, Apostolic Faith mag, Faith basis no offerings, Bible School model from Frank Sandford's work, Agnes Ozman asked prayer to receive fullness of the Holy Spirit ; Muscatine, Iowa; Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1929, Commemorated January 29 ; F. Parham (June 4, 1873 – c. January 29, 1929) was an American preacher and evangelist. with William J. Seymour, Parham was one of the two central figures in the development and early spread of American Pentecostalism. was Parham who associated glossolalia with the baptism in the Holy Spirit, a theological connection crucial to the emergence of Pentecostalism as a distinct movement. was the first preacher to articulate Pentecostalism's distinctive doctrine of evidential tongues, and to expand the movement. life[edit] one of five sons of William and Ann Parham, was born in Muscatine, Iowa, on June 4, 1873 and moved with his family to Cheney, Kansas, by covered wagon in 1878. William Parham owned land, raised cattle, and eventually purchased a business in town. Parham's mother died in 1885. The next year his father married Harriet Miller, the daughter of a Methodist circuit rider. Harriet was a devout Christian, and the Parhams opened their home for "religious activities".[1] married Sarah Thistlewaite, the daughter of a Quaker. Their engagement was in summer of 1896,[2] and they were married December 31, 1896, in a Friends' ceremony.[3] ministry[edit] began conducting his first religious services at the age of 15. 1890, he enrolled at Southwestern College in Winfield, Kansas, a Methodist affiliated school. He attended until 1893 when he came to believe education would prevent him from ministering effectively. then worked in the Methodist Episcopal Church as a supply pastor (he was never ordained).[4] Parham left the Methodist church in 1895 because he disagreed with its hierarchy. He complained that Methodist preachers "were not left to preach by direct inspiration".[2] Rejecting denominations, he established his own itinerant evangelistic ministry, which preached the ideas of the holiness movement and was well received by the people of Kansas.[5] Kansas[edit] after the birth of his son, Claude, in September 1897, both Parham and Claude fell ill. Attributing their subsequent recovery to divine intervention, Parham renounced all medical help and committed to preach divine healing and prayer for the sick.[6] 1898, Parham moved his headquarters to Topeka, Kansas, where he operated a mission and an office. It was also in Topeka that he established the Bethel Healing Home and published the Apostolic Faith magazine. Parham operated on a "faith" basis. He did not receive offerings during services, preferring to pray for God to provide for the ministry.[7] "deciding to know more fully the latest truths restored by the later day movements", took a sabbatical from his work at Topeka in 1900 and "visited various movements".[8] While he saw and looked at other teachings and models as he visited the other works, most of his time was spent at Shiloh, the ministry of Frank Sandford in Maine, and in an Ontario religious campaign of Sandford's.[2] From Parham's later writings, it appears he incorporated some, but not all, of the ideas he observed into his view of Bible truths (which he later taught at his Bible schools).[9] In addition to having an impact on what he taught, it appears he picked up his Bible school model, and other approaches, from Sandford's work.[2] he returned from this sabbatical, those left in charge of his healing home had taken over and, rather than fighting for control, Parham started Bethel Bible College at Topeka in October 1900. The school was modeled on Sandford's "Holy Ghost and Us Bible School", and Parham continued to operate on a faith basis, charging no tuition. He invited "all ministers and Christians who were willing to forsake all, sell what they had, give it away, and enter the school for study and prayer". About 40 people (including dependents) responded.[7] The only text book was the Bible, and the teacher was the Holy Spirit (with Parham as mouthpiece).[10] to starting his Bible school, Parham had heard of at least one individual in Sandford's work who spoke in tongues and had reprinted the incident in his paper. He had also come to the conclusion that there was more to a full baptism than others acknowledged at the time.[2] By the end of 1900, Parham had led his students at Bethel Bible School through his understanding that there had to be a further experience with God, but had not specifically pointed them to speaking in tongues. While Parham's account indicates that when classes were finished at the end of December, he left his students for a few days, asking them to study the Bible to determine what evidence was present when the early church received the Holy Spirit,[3] this is not clear from the other accounts.[2][9] The students had several days of prayer and worship, and held a New Year's Eve watchnight service at Bethel (December 31, 1900). The next evening (January 1, 1901) they also held a worship service, and it was that evening that Agnes Ozman felt impressed to ask to be prayed for to receive the fullness of the Holy Spirit.[2] Immediately after being prayed for, she began to speak in what they referred to as "in tongues", speaking in what was believed to be a known language.[9] Faith Movement[edit] controversial beliefs and aggressive style made finding support for his school difficult; the local press ridiculed Parham's Bible school calling it "the Tower of Babel", and many of his former students called him a fake. By April 1901, Parham's ministry had dissolved.[11] It was not until 1903 that his fortunes improved when he preached on Christ's healing power at El Dorado Springs, Missouri, a popular health resort. Mary Arthur, wife of a prominent citizen of Galena, Kansas, claimed she had been healed under Parham's ministry. She and her husband invited Parham to preach his message in Galena, which he did through the winter of 1903-1904 in a warehouse seating hundreds. In January, the Joplin, Missouri, News Herald reported that 1,000 had been healed and 800 had claimed conversion. In the small mining towns of southwest Missouri and southeastern Kansas, Parham developed a strong following that would form the backbone of his movement for the rest of his life.[12] of the Galena meetings, Parham gathered a group of young coworkers who would travel from town to town in "bands" proclaiming the "apostolic faith". Unlike other preachers with a holiness-oriented message, Parham encouraged his followers to dress stylishly so as to show the attractiveness of the Christian life. It was at this time in 1904 that the first frame church built specifically as a Pentecostal assembly was constructed in Keelville, Kansas. Other "apostolic faith assemblies" (Parham disliked designating local Christian bodies as "churches") were begun in the Galena area.[13] Parham's movement soon spread throughout Texas, Kansas, and Oklahoma. 1906 Parham began working on a number of fronts. In Houston, Parham's ministry included conducting a Bible school around 1906. Several African Americans were influenced heavily by Parham's ministry there, including William J. Seymour.[14] Both Parham and Seymour preached to Houston's African Americans, and Parham had planned to send Seymour out to preach to the black communities throughout Texas.[15] In September he also ventured to Zion, IL, in an effort to win over the adherents of the discredited John Alexander Dowie, although he left for good after the municipal water tower collapsed and destroyed his preaching tent. For about a year he had a following of several hundred "Parhamites", eventually led by John G Lake.[16] In 1906, Parham sent Lucy Farrow (a black woman who was cook at his Houston school, who had received "the Spirit's Baptism" and felt "a burden for Los Angeles"), to Los Angeles, California, along with funds, and a few months later sent Seymour to join Farrow in the work in Los Angeles, California, with funds from the school.[17][18] Seymour's work in Los Angeles would eventually develop into the Azusa Street Revival, which is considered by many as the birthplace of the Pentecostal movement. Seymour requested and received a license as a minister of Parham's Apostolic Faith Movement, and he initially considered his work in Los Angeles under Parham's authority.[14] However, Seymour soon broke with Parham over his harsh criticism of the emotional worship at Asuza Street and the intermingling of whites and blacks in the services.[19] commitment to racial segregation and his support of British Israelism have often led people to consider him as a racist. However, some have noted that Parham was the first to reach across racial lines to African Americans and Mexican Americans and included them in the young Pentecostal movement. He preached in black churches and invited Lucy Farrow, the black woman he sent to Los Angeles, to preach at the Houston "Apostolic Faith Movement" Camp Meeting in August 1906, at which he and W. Fay Carrothers were in charge. This incident is recounted by eyewitness Howard A. Goss in his wife's book, The Winds of God,[20] in which he states: "Fresh from the revival in Los Angeles, Sister Lucy Farrow returned to attend this Camp Meeting. Although a Negro, she was received as a messenger from the Lord to us, even in the deep south of Texas."[21] and decline of influence[edit] blow to his influence in the young Pentecostal movement were allegations of sexual misconduct in fall 1906. This was followed by his arrest in 1907 in San Antonio, Texas on a charge of "the commission of an unnatural offense," along with a 22-year-old co-defendant, J.J. Jourdan. Parham repeatedly denied being a practicing homosexual, but coverage was picked up by the press.[22] Finally, the District Attorney decided to drop the case. Parham and his supporters insisted that the charges had been false, and were part of an attempt by Wilbur Voliva to frame him.[23] Parham had previously stopped preaching at Voliva's Zion City church in order to set up his Apostolic Faith Movement. However, Parham's opponents used the episode to discredit both Parham and his religious movement. Posters with a supposed confession by Parham of sodomy were distributed to towns where he was preaching, years after the case against him was dropped. Parham was never able to recover from the stigma that had attached itself to his ministry, and his influence waned.[23][24][25][26] addition there were allegations of financial irregularity and of doctrinal aberrations.[27] In the aftermath of these events his large support base in Zion descended into a Salem-like frenzy of insanity, eventually killing three of their members in brutal exorcisms. Members of the group, who included John G Lake and Fred Bosworth, were forced to flee from Illinois, and scattered across America.[28] As the focus of the movement moved from Parham to Seymour, Parham became resentful. His attacks on emerging leaders coupled with the allegations alienated him from much of the movement that he began. He became "an embarrassment" to a new movement which was trying to establish its credibility.[27] a boy, Parham had contracted a severe rheumatic fever which damaged his heart and contributed to his poor health. At one time he almost died. Parham recovered to an active preaching life, strongly believing that God was his healer. While he recovered from the rheumatic fever, it appears the disease probably weakened his heart muscles and was a contributing factor to his later heart problems and early death.[2] By 1927 early symptoms of heart problems were beginning to appear, and by the fall and summer of 1928, after returning from a trip to Palestine (which had been a lifetime desire), Parham's health began to further deteriorate. early January 1929, Parham took a long car ride with two friends to Temple, Texas, where he was to be presenting his pictures of Palestine. On January 5, he collapsed while showing his slides. When his wife arrived, she found out that his heart was bad, and he was unable to eat. Against his wishes (he wanted to continue his preaching tour), his family brought him home to Baxter Springs, Kansas, where he died on the afternoon of January 29, 1929.[29] · [30] · [31] beliefs developed over time. Several factors influenced his theological ideas. He preferred to work out doctrinal ideas in private meditation, he believed the Holy Spirit communicated with him directly, and he rejected established religious authority. He focused on "salvation by faith; healing by faith; laying on of hands and prayer; sanctification by faith; coming (premillennial) of Christ; the baptism of the Holy Ghost and fire, which seals the bride and bestows the gifts".[6] evidence[edit] most important theological contributions were his beliefs about the baptism with the Holy Spirit. There were Christians groups speaking in tongues and teaching an experience of Spirit baptism before 1901, like for example, in 17th century, the Camisards[32][33] and the Quakers.[34] Parham was the first to identify tongues as the "Bible evidence" of Spirit baptism.[35] It is not clear when he began to preach the need for such an experience, but it is clear that he did by 1900. he understood the experience to have eschatological significance—it "sealed the bride" for the "marriage supper of the Lamb".[6] The bride of Christ consisted of 144,000 people taken from the church who would escape the horrors of the tribulation. It was Parham's desire for assurance that he would be included in the rapture that led him to search for uniform evidence of Spirit baptism. Parham would emphasize speaking in tongues and evangelism, defining the purpose of Spirit baptism as an "enduement with power for service".[10] Parham believed that the tongues spoken by the baptized were actual human languages, eliminating the need for missionaries to learn foreign languages and thus aiding in the spread of the gospel.[36] Some of Parham's followers even traveled to foreign countries in hopes of using glossolalia to communicate with the locals without learning the local languages. But after consistent failed attempts at xenoglossia "many of Parham's followers became disillusioned and left the movement."[37] beliefs[edit] believed in annihilationism—that the wicked are not eternally tormented in hell but are destroyed. According to this belief, immortality is conditional, and only those who receive Christ as Lord and Savior will live eternally. He stated in 1902, "Orthodoxy would cast this entire company into an eternal burning hell; but our God is a God of love and justice, and the flames will reach those only who are utterly reprobate".[5] He also believed in British Israelism, an ideology maintaining that the Anglo-Saxon peoples were among the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel.[7] In addition, Parham subscribed to rather unorthodox views on creation. He believed God took two days to create humans—non-whites on the sixth day and whites on the eighth.[38] Parham also supported Theodor Herzl and the struggle for a Jewish homeland, lecturing on the subject often. Pentecostals would agree with Parham's belief that Spirit baptized (with the evidence of an unknown tongue) Christians would be taken in the rapture. But his teachings on British Israelism and the annihilation of the wicked were vehemently rejected.[19] originated the doctrine of initial evidence—that the baptism of the Holy Spirit is evidenced by speaking in tongues.[27] It was this doctrine that made Pentecostalism distinct from other holiness Christian groups that spoke in tongues or believed in an experience subsequent to salvation and sanctification. In a move criticized by Parham,[19] his Apostolic Faith Movement merged with other Pentecostal groups in 1914 to form the General Council of the Assemblies of God in the United States of America.[39] Today, the worldwide Assemblies of God is the largest Pentecostal denomination. In 1916, the fourth general council of Assemblies of God met in St. Louis, MO to decide on the mode of baptism they would use. All Apostolic Faith Movement ministers were baptized in Jesus' name by Charles F. Parham including Howard Goss, First Superintendent of the United Pentecostal Church International. After a vote, out of approximately 430 ministers, 133 were asked to leave because the majority ruled they would maintain the Catholic Trinitarian formula of baptism as the official baptism of the Assemblies of God. This move formally sparked the creation of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, which would eventually create the United Pentecostal Church International and the Assemblies of the Lord Jesus Christ.

US, 1895-1969, HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, Seminole Tribe of Southern Florida
US, 1895-1969, HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, Seminole Tribe of Southern Florida, after first serving Cheyenne Indians at Whirlwind Mission in Oklahoma and then Stevens Village Alaska which moved to Tanana, but funds ran out with the depression; Bedell (March 19, 1875 – January 8, 1969) was an Episcopal deaconess and missionary to the Cheyenne in Oklahoma, Alaska Natives (spending 15 years at a missionary school), and the Seminole of Florida. She is remembered on the calendar of saints of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America with a minor feast day on January 8. Seminole Tribe of Florida ; HARRIET BEDELL, DEACONESS AND MISSIONARY, (8 January 1969) ; Bedell, missionary and friend to the Seminole Indians of Florida, was born in Buffalo, New York on March 19, 1875. was trained as a schoolteacher but was inspired several years later by an Episcopalian missionary who spoke at her church describing the many needs of missionary work. 1906 she applied to, and was accepted by, the New York Training School for Deaconesses, where her one-year course of study included instruction in religious matters, missions, teaching, hygiene, and hospital nursing. her training she was sent as a missionary-teacher to the Cheyenne Indians at Whirlwind Mission in Oklahoma. duties at the Whirlwind Mission were many. She cared for the sick and the poor, organized social services for the tribe, performed the duties of the rector in his absence, and provided education for the women and children. She provided religious instruction, hoping to win the confidence of the Indians and convert them to Christianity. of her experience in both teaching and working with Indians, in 1916 an Episcopal bishop requested that she consider an assignment in a remote area of Alaska. by the prospect of leaving Oklahoma, she nevertheless accepted her new assignment in Stevens Village, Alaska. there, in 1922 she was finally made a deaconess in the church, instilling in her a new and profound dedication to her vocation. mission at Stevens Village was moved to Tanana so that a boarding school funded by church members' contributions could be established for the children who could not travel in the bad winter weather. by 1931, funds were so scarce that Deaconess Bedell traveled to New York to plea for more contributions. of the Great Depression, there was little available money, and although the church paid off the school's existing debt, there was little reason for Bedell to return to Alaska. Bedell speaking engagements following her service in Alaska, Bedell was invited to visit a Seminole Indian reservation in southern Florida. Appalled by their living conditions, she began her campaign to improve the quality of life among the Mikasuki-Seminole Indians by living and working with them, not merely teaching them. sought to revive the doll making and basket weaving skills which had become nearly extinct. encouraged the incorporation of the intricate patchwork designs made by Indian women into articles of clothing for both women and men. from the arts and crafts store at Blades Cross Mission helped to provide improved income for the Mikasuki-Seminoles. emphasized health and education rather than religious conversion in her work with the Seminoles; their spiritual and physical comfort was more important to her than religious conversion, and her work and friendship with the Seminoles of Florida reflected those values. from the Florida Memory Project

US, 1897-1901, Pres Will McKinley, expert on protective tarriffs, Spanish-American War, gold standard, rapid econ growth
US President, 1897-1901, William McKinley; McKinley (born William McKinley Jr., January 29, 1843 - September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. He was president during the Spanish–American War of 1898, raised protective tariffs to boost American industry, and rejected the expansionary monetary policy of free silver, keeping the nation on the gold standard. Republican, McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War; he was the only one to begin his service as an enlisted man, and end as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law and married Ida Saxton. In 1876, McKinley was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Party's expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial and, together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office, led to his defeat in the Democratic landslide of 1890. He was elected governor of Ohio in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 amid a deep economic depression. He defeated his Democratic rival William Jennings Bryan after a front porch campaign in which he advocated "sound money" (the gold standard unless altered by international agreement) and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. economic growth marked McKinley's presidency. He promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition and in 1900 secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. He hoped to persuade Spain to grant independence to rebellious Cuba without conflict, but when negotiation failed, requested and signed Congress's declaration of war to begin the Spanish-American War of 1898. The United States victory was quick and decisive. As part of the peace settlement, Spain turned over to the United States its main overseas colonies of Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines while Cuba was promised independence, but at that time remained under the control of the United States Army. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898 and it became a United States territory. regard McKinley's 1896 victory as a realigning election in which the political stalemate of the post-Civil War era gave way to the Republican-dominated Fourth Party System, beginning with the Progressive Era. McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism, and free silver. His achievements were cut short when he was fatally shot on September 6, 1901, by Leon Czolgosz, a second-generation Polish-American anarchist. McKinley died eight days later and was succeeded by Vice President Theodore Roosevelt. As an innovator of American interventionism and pro-business sentiment, McKinley is generally ranked above average. His popularity was soon overshadowed by Roosevelt's. WILLIAM REED HUNTINGTON, PRIEST (27 JULY 1909); SAMUEL FERGUSON, MISSIONARY BISHOP FOR WEST AFRICA, 1916, Commemorated August 2; GEORGE FREEMAN BRAGG, Jr., PRIEST, 3 August 1940; W. E. B. DU BOIS, SOCIOLOGIST, 3 August 1963, Commemorated August 3; WILLIAM PORCHER DUBOSE, PRIEST AND THEOLOGIAN (18 AUGUST 1918); Thomas Gallaudet of THOMAS GALLAUDET & HENRY WINTER SYLE PRIESTS (27 AUGUST 1902 & 6 JANUARY 1890); CHARLES CHAPMAN GRAFTON, BISHOP OF FOND DU LAC & ECUMENIST, 30 August 1912 ; DAVID PENDLETON OAKERHATER, DEACON AND MISSIONARY (1 SEP 1931); GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; ALEXANDER CRUMMELL, PRIEST, MISSIONARY, EDUCATOR (10 SEP 1898) ; HARRY THACKER BURLIEGH, COMPOSER, 11 Sept. 1949; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922; JOHN MOTT, EVANGELIST AND ECUMENICAL PIONEER, 3 October 1955; Theodore Ely of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; William Dwight Porter Bliss of WILLIAM DWIGHT PORTER BLISS and PRIEST, 8 October 1926, RICHARD THEODORE ELY, ECONOMIST, 4 October 1943; VIDA DUTTON SCUDDER, EDUCATOR AND WITNESS FOR PEACE, (10 October 1954; SAMUEL ISAAC JOSEPH SCHERESCHEWSKY, SCHOLAR, TRANSLATOR, BISHOP (14 OCT 1906); Priestmartyr John Kochurov, Commemorated on October 31; Charles Harrison (C.H.) Mason, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, 1961, Commemorated November 17 ; JAMES OTIS SARGENT HUNTINGTON, FOUNDER (25 NOV 1935); CHANNING MOORE WILLIAMS, MISSIONARY TO ASIA (2 DEC. 1910); John Lefarge of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16; Ralph Adams Cram of RALPH ADAMS CRAM, RICHARD UPJOHN, AND JOHN LAFARGE ARCHITECTS, 1942, 1878; ARTIST, 1910, Commemorated December 16 ; LOTTIE MOON, MISSIONARY IN CHINA, 1912, Commemorated December 22; FRANCES JOSEPH-GAUDET, EDUCATOR AND PRISON REFORMER, (30 December 1934); JULIA CHESTER EMERY, UPHOLDER OF MISSIONS (9 JAN 1922); Charles Fox Parham, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated January 29 ; FANNY CROSBY, (FRANCES JANE VAN ALSTYNE CROSBY), HYMNWRITER, 1915, Commemorated February 11; JOHN ROBERTS, PRIEST, 1949, Commemorated February 25; EMILY MALBONE MORGAN, PROPHETIC WITNESS, 1937, Commemorated February 26; Repose of St Raphael the Bishop of Brooklyn, Commemorated on February 27; Anna Julia Haywood Cooper of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Elizabeth Evelyn Wright of ANNA JULIA HAYWOOD COOPER and ELIZABETH EVELYN WRIGHT, EDUCATORS, (1964, 1906), Commemorated February 28; Charles Menninger of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; William Mayo of WILLIAM W. MAYO, CHARLES MENNINGER, and their SONS, PIONEERS IN MEDICINE, 1911, 1953, Commemorated March 6; JAMES THEODORE HOLLY, BISHOP OF HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC (13 March 1911); CHARLES HENRY BRENT, Missionary Bishop (27 March 1929); Edward Thomas Demby of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Henry Beard Delany of HENRY BEARD DELANY and EDWARD THOMAS DEMBY, BISHOPS, 1928, 1957, Commemorated April 14; Hudson Stuck of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; John Muir of JOHN MUIR and HUDSON STUCK, NATURALIST & WRITER, 1914; PRIEST & ENVIRONMENTALIST, 1920, Commemorated April 21; WILLIAM HOBART HARE, BISHOP OF NIOBRARA, and of SOUTH DAKOTA, 1909, Commemorated May 17 ; ENMEGAHBOWH, PRIEST AND MISSIONARY (12 JUNE 1902); CORNELIUS HILL, PRIEST and CHIEF AMONG THE ONEIDA, 1907, Commemorated June 27; HARRIET BEECHER STOWE, WRITER AND PROPHETIC WITNESS, July 1, 1896; Jacob Riis of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2; Washington Gladden of WALTER RAUSCHENBUSCH, WASHINGTON GLADDEN, and JACOB RIIS, PROPHETIC WITNESSES, 1918, 1918, 1914, Commemorated July 2 ;

US, 1898, Spanish-American War, US gets Guam, Phillipines, Puerto Rico, Cuba, R the Maine
Spanish-American War, 1898; Spanish–American War (April 21 – August 13, 1898, Spanish: Guerra hispano-estadounidense or Guerra hispano-americana; Filipino: Digmaang Espanyol-Amerikano)[d] was an armed conflict between Spain and the United States. Hostilities began in the aftermath of the internal explosion of USS Maine in Havana Harbor in Cuba, leading to U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence. The war led to the U.S. emerging predominant in the Caribbean region,[14] and resulted in U.S. acquisition of Spain's Pacific possessions. It led to U.S. involvement in the Philippine Revolution and later to the Philippine–American War. The main issue was Cuban independence. Revolts had been occurring for some years in Cuba against Spanish colonial rule. The U.S. backed these revolts upon entering the Spanish–American War. There had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873. But in the late 1890s, American public opinion swayed in support of the rebellion due to reports of concentration camps (death estimates range from 150,000 to 400,000 people) set up to control the populace.[15][16] Yellow journalism exaggerated the atrocities to further increase public fervor and to sell more newspapers and magazines.[17] business community had just recovered from a deep depression and feared that a war would reverse the gains. Accordingly, most business interests lobbied vigorously against going to war.[18] President William McKinley ignored the exaggerated news reporting and sought a peaceful settlement.[19] However, after the United States Navy armored cruiser Maine mysteriously exploded and sank in Havana Harbor on February 15, 1898, political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed McKinley into a war that he had wished to avoid. April 20, 1898, McKinley signed a joint Congressional resolution demanding Spanish withdrawal and authorizing the President to use military force to help Cuba gain independence.[20] In response, Spain severed diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba.[21] Both sides declared war; neither had allies. 10-week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. As U.S. agitators for war well knew,[22] U.S. naval power would prove decisive, allowing expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already facing nationwide Cuban insurgent attacks and further wasted by yellow fever.[23] The invaders obtained the surrender of Santiago de Cuba and Manila despite the good performance of some Spanish infantry units, and fierce fighting for positions such as San Juan Hill.[24] Madrid sued for peace after two Spanish squadrons were sunk in the battles of Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay, and a third, more modern fleet was recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts.[25] result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. which allowed it temporary control of Cuba and ceded ownership of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine islands. The cession of the Philippines involved payment of $20 million ($620 million today) to Spain by the U.S. to cover infrastructure owned by Spain.[26] defeat and loss of the Spanish Empire's last remnants was a profound shock to Spain's national psyche and provoked a thorough philosophical and artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of '98.[25] The United States gained several island possessions spanning the globe, which provoked rancorous debate over the wisdom of expansionism.[27] Philippine-“American War 1899-1902; GREGORIO AGLIPAY, PRIEST AND FOUNDER OF THE PHILIPINE INDEPENDENT CHURCH, 5 Sept. 1940; Maria Woodworth-Etter, PENTECOSTAL SAINT, Commemorated September 19; William J. Seymour, Pentecostal Saint, Commemorated September 28, 1922;